tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2708990754435081002024-03-17T20:03:52.682-07:00Future Planetary ExplorationVan Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.comBlogger640125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-63027520269423399462018-12-21T22:00:00.002-08:002018-12-21T22:00:11.652-08:00Alternative source of new mission newsI'm finding the professor gig is keeping me pretty busy, and posts
here have become scarce. I still do expect to post irregularly here.
You can find many posts of future planetary missions at the
NASASpaceflight.com site, where I post fairly regularly. Two
recommended forums:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?board=49.0">Space science coverage</a> <br />
<a href="https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?board=57.0">Mars missions</a><br />
<br />
<br />Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-22867389370646900112018-12-21T21:53:00.000-08:002018-12-21T21:59:39.044-08:00Discovery 2019 Competition<br />
NASA recently posted its draft Announcement of Opportunity for its next Discovery competition that will select two missions, one to fly in the mid-2020s and the other in the late 2020s. I am starting to see in scientific conferences missions likely to be proposed (several of which were also proposed but not selected for the last competition that selected the Lucy and Psyche asteroid missions). NASA expects to select up to five finalists for further definition with the final selections from this candidate list.<br />
<br />
Mission proposals can target any solar system study, except those that would study the sun or Earth, that, “Ascertain the content, origin, and evolution of the solar system and the potential for life elsewhere.”<br />
<br />
Mission costs for the spacecraft, instruments, flight software, and ground systems (the Principal Investigator costs) are capped at $500 million in FY2019 dollars. NASA provides management, the launch, and covers mission operations in addition to the PI costs. These other costs can be substantial. The projected full cost of the Lucy mission is $914-984 million and the Psyche mission is $907-957 million when the PI costs were capped at $450 million in FY2015 dollars.<br />
<br />
The PI budget can be adjusted upward by up to $20 million by adding a technology demonstration (see below) or up or down by $10-20M by selecting a less capable or a more capable launch vehicle than the baseline. Instruments, up to approximately one-third of the payload, can be contributed by foreign space agencies or governments outside of the PI cost cap. <br />
<br />
The target schedule for the selection and launches of the Discovery missions is:<br />
<br />
AO Release Date (target)................February 28, 2019<br />
Proposals due.................................May 31, 2019<br />
Selection of up to 5 finalists............December 20, 2019<br />
Selection of up to 2 final missions...March 31, 2021<br />
1st launch period............................July 1, 2025, through Dec. 31, 2026<br />
2nd launch period...........................July 1, 2028, through Dec. 31, 2029<br />
<br />
NASA will select the winning proposals based on three criteria:<br />
<br />
• Scientific merit of the proposed investigation (40%)<br />
• Scientific implementation merit and feasibility of the proposed investigation (30%) <br />
• Technical, management, and cost feasibility of the proposed mission implementation (30%)<br />
<br />
Proposed missions can use the plutonium-238 MMRTG power systems. However, including these will cost the PI budget $54 million for the first MMRTG and an additional $15 million for the second.<br />
<br />
In what I believe is a new opportunity for Discovery proposals, PI’s can propose (or NASA may add), “An Enhancing Technology Demonstration Opportunity (TDO) consists of either PI-team-developed or NASA-developed technologies that may have a TRL of less than 6 [approaching but not yet ready for flight] when proposed, is not required to achieve the Baseline or the Threshold Science Mission, but could enhance the scientific return or reduce cost and complexity of the proposed mission and/or future missions. An Enhancing TDO may be an instrument, investigation, new technology, hardware, or software demonstrated on either the flight system.”<br />
<br />
Missions are also expected to, “provide active research opportunities for current or aspiring graduate<br />
or undergraduate students, including advanced high schoolers. SCs may involve students in multiple aspects of a mission spanning scientific formulation; mission planning; systems engineering; design and development of flight hardware; qualification, test and integration; and mission operations and data analysis.”Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-87124776040155189652018-04-29T12:06:00.000-07:002018-11-24T10:31:34.090-08:00A Comet or Titan: The Next New Frontiers Mission<!--[if !mso]>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The two
concepts contending to be selected as NASA’s next planetary mission have two
things in common.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Both
would do compelling science.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Both
would not begin their scientific missions until the mid-2030s.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Otherwise
the two missions could not be more different.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Comet Astrobiology Exploration
Sample Return (CAESAR) mission would return to the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko
that the Rosetta spacecraft and its lander Philae previously studied.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The CAESAR spacecraft essentially would be a high-tech
truck that would grab a small sample from the surface and then return it to
Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Except for some ancillary observations
performed by its engineering cameras, the science would begin when the samples
are delivered to the exquisitely sophisticated instruments in terrestrial
laboratories where they would be analyzed grain-by-grain and
isotope-by-isotope.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Dragonfly mission would return to the surface of Saturn’s moon Titan that is at
once both an Earth-like and an utterly alien world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The craft would alternate between flights to
new locations and much longer periods as a stationary surface station. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every flight would be a voyage of discovery
above a barely known surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every
landing could provide a new site to explore in depth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every minute of its potentially many year
sojourn at Titan would be spent doing science.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Both
missions are finalists in the competition to be NASA’s fourth New Frontiers
mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Previous selections were the
New Horizon’s Pluto-Kuiper belt spacecraft, the Juno Jupiter orbiter, and the
OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return mission.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These are the mid-class missions of NASA’s solar system exploration
program that are launched once to twice a decade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s managers selected these two concepts
from a <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2017/08/proposed-new-frontiers-missions.html">field
of twelve proposals</a> (and <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2017/10/venus-origins-explorer-new-frontiers.html">here</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
CAESAR and Dragonfly missions differ so much because they represent different stages
in the progression of exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Comets have already had several flyby missions and one orbiter-lander
mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, the top priority
among comet specialists is to progress to the next step, sample return.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Further exploration isn’t the priority. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The lowest risk mission that grabs and brings
back the sample is the best mission.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Titan, on
the other hand, was studied by the Cassini spacecraft through a multitude of
flybys that cumulatively mapped the surface at only low to moderate resolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Titan’s atmosphere was also explored by the
Huygens probe that descended to the surface, but it carried out only the
simplest measurements of surface’s physical properties once it landed.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next step is to land to study the surface
in detail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titan offers a unique
opportunity in the solar system where a thick atmosphere coupled with low
gravity allows a science station to relocate itself by flying to new
sites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this world, exploration is
the priority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">CAESAR</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Comets
are deep frozen remnants from the birth of our solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They contain relatively unaltered ices and
dust from the interstellar cloud from which our solar system formed as well as
the processed material that resulted from the earliest steps in the formation
of comet-sized bodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By returning
samples to Earth, scientists can determine what materials were available to
build the planets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also can study
the earliest chemical pathways that led to creating more complex molecules and
the physical processes that accumulated the interstellar material into larger
bodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one recent scientific paper
put it, “comets record chemical evolution in the protoplanetary disk and allow
us to unveil the formation history of the organics and volatiles,” while
another in the same issue notes that the Rosetta spacecraft found that comet
67P, “revealed a greater variety of molecules than previously identified and indicated
that 67P contained both primitive and processed organic entities.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTac28jb5LsQabN_1nwUrAtTOnKm6ObnIwiCZgoiodlZLdjJWkRkl8s7b_sj-IonuBkYxnRQXJTpplWuQCu6l_aZ7P2TuibKBnjE8SCV8zpct7mlcgwboHj2cHssl9SHr_wco5aMFVJb0/s1600/comet+67P.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1600" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTac28jb5LsQabN_1nwUrAtTOnKm6ObnIwiCZgoiodlZLdjJWkRkl8s7b_sj-IonuBkYxnRQXJTpplWuQCu6l_aZ7P2TuibKBnjE8SCV8zpct7mlcgwboHj2cHssl9SHr_wco5aMFVJb0/s400/comet+67P.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The CAESAR mission would return to comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit:
ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA;
processing by Giuseppe Conzo</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">However, instruments
that can fit the tight mass, size, and power budgets to be flown on spacecraft are
limited in their ability to explore the composition of these materials.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The far more sophisticated instruments in
Earth-based laboratories – which can be larger than entire spacecraft or even
launch vehicles – can study samples grain-by-grain and isotope-by-isotope.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ultimate exploration goal, where
technically feasible, for each world is to bring samples back to our world to
explore their formation and evolution in depth.</span>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The team proposing the CAESAR mission
has laid out a series of hypotheses that would be enabled by examining samples
in terrestrial laboratories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arranged in
three themes, the hypotheses address different periods in the formation of the
solar system starting with the transition from the interstellar cloud from
which the solar system formed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
hypotheses for this theme address questions on what types of unaltered interstellar
material were preserved (or not) in 67P.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The next theme addresses the nature of the material in the
protoplanetary disk and hence the material that would have been available to
build the earliest small bodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here
the key questions focus on whether 67P is a direct descendant of the
interstellar medium or also contains high temperature silicates and organics
that would have formed close to the early sun and then been blown out to the
outer solar system and trapped within the material that formed 67P.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The final theme addresses how the current
body that is 67P formed from the initial grains of ice and rock available in
the earliest solar system, and what role bodies like it played in delivering
materials, especially volatiles such as water, to the planets.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
CAESAR mission would be a companion mission to the previously selected, and now
in flight, OSIRIS-REx New Frontiers mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While comets are the oldest frozen remains of the solar system’s
formation, several classes of asteroids are considered primitive relics of the
earliest formation of solid bodies closer to the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The OSIRIS-REx spacecraft will arrive at one
of these, 101955 Bennu, later this year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Following a thorough examination of this tiny (~245-meter diameter) body
by a battery of remote sensing instruments, the spacecraft will descend, and a
robotic arm will grab a sample from the surface to be returned to Earth. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Collecting
samples from very small bodies is an engineering challenge because the gravity
is too low to enable conventional landings and surface operations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the Japanese Hayabusa and OSIRIS-REx
asteroid sample return missions, the CAESAR spacecraft would use a touch-and-go
sampling mechanism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The spacecraft would
slowly descend to the surface with a sample collection system at the end of a
long arm below the craft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the
five seconds that the collection system would be in contact with the surface,
nitrogen gas would be used to blow the comet’s surface material into a
containment system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because comets
contain ices that can freeze into a solid surface, the CAESAR collection system
(unlike the OSIRIS-REx system where ices aren’t expected) would have spring
loaded ripper tines to break up the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The mission’s goal is to collect at least 80 grams of dust and ices,
although the collection system can gather several times that if enough loose
material is available.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After that brief
contact, the arm acts as a pogo stick pushing the spacecraft away from the
surface and back into space.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGgY-J26X153Jn-VwsqXg7z4Py1_fOuUxV5d78QKwziKvSA-dNmTX3Jqkza3ycv0zibUFwPJy-froe1Y5Y2eBSTzyD_kUbVzj9wSETG2md1YHJAYlxsmrZKTlR29KjvYuvV628B-GmCFE/s1600/CAESAR+spacecraft+concept.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="616" data-original-width="1432" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGgY-J26X153Jn-VwsqXg7z4Py1_fOuUxV5d78QKwziKvSA-dNmTX3Jqkza3ycv0zibUFwPJy-froe1Y5Y2eBSTzyD_kUbVzj9wSETG2md1YHJAYlxsmrZKTlR29KjvYuvV628B-GmCFE/s400/CAESAR+spacecraft+concept.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The CAESAR spacecraft with its extended arm and sampling
mechanism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit NASA.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Again, like
OSIRIS-REx, following confirmation from instruments that a sample was
successfully collected, the containment system with its sample would be placed
within a sample return capsule that ultimately would deliver the sample to
Earth following a fiery plunge through the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this capsule and its embedded sample
containment system have two major innovations not needed by the OSIRIS-REx
mission.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">For the
CAESAR mission, a key goal is to return both the dusty component and minimally
modified samples of the icy volatile material.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Once in the sample return capsule, the sample would be gently heated to
approximately -30 degrees Celsius to sublimate the volatiles out of the
sample.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(If -30 sounds chilly, remember
that comets are deep frozen relics even following heating by the sun during
their passages through the inner solar system.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The sublimated gases would flow to a gas containment system that would
be kept at -60 degrees Celsius where they would either refreeze (for example,
water) or remain as gases (for example, methane and carbon dioxide) depending
on their freezing points.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Removing the
volatiles from the sample ensures that they don’t chemically modify the solid
sample during the return flight to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Keeping them chilled in the gas containment system also minimizes
chemical interactions among the volatiles.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The need
to preserve a frigid sample system drives a second difference from the
OSIRIS-REx return system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the
plunge through the Earth’s atmosphere at the end of the mission, the heat
shield would absorb considerable heat that would eventually raise the
temperature of the sample.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the rocky
material that the OSIRIS-REx mission would return, this isn’t a concern.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the CAESAR mission would drop the
heat shield from the return capsule as soon as the parachute deploys,
minimizing any heating of the sample.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(This is a technology developed by the Japanese for their Hayabusa
asteroid sample return missions, and their space agency would provide the
CAESAR return capsule.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">There’s
another important difference between the OSIRIS-REx and CAESAR missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To intelligently select and later interpret
samples, scientists need to understand the parent body: What is its shape and
interior structure?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What processes have
shaped it surface? How does the composition vary across the body?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The OSIRIS-REx mission is going to a body
that has never been visited before.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a
result, that spacecraft carries a rich payload of cameras and spectrometers to
map the physical surface and its composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If the mission only completes its survey of the asteroid Bennu but for
some reason fails to return its sample to Earth, it would have told us a great
deal about how this tiny primitive asteroid came to be. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
CAESAR mission’s target, comet 67P, was previously studied by the Rosetta
mission and its partially successful Philae lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, the CASEAR spacecraft wouldn’t
need to carry its own scientific instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It does carry narrow- and wide-angle engineering cameras that would be
used to remap 67P’s surface, which is likely to have changed during its
subsequent perihelion passages from solar heating.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Identifying the changes would be a useful
scientific byproduct.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From these
images, the science and engineering teams would map the surface in terms of how
safely the spacecraft can approach the surface, whether the surface material
has physical characteristics compatible with the sampling mechanism, whether
the arm can deliver the sample mechanism to the surface, and the intrinsic
science value.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Based on
maps derived from the Rosetta images, the CAESAR team is currently expecting to
take its sample from one of the smooth terrains that appear to consist of
material that has slumped there from the rugged terrains that would be unsafe
to sample directly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The smooth terrains also
likely contain material delivered from the jets that spew a cloud of volatiles
and dust in the space around 67P each time it comes close to the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the rocky and organic materials
appear to be nearly uniformly distributed across surface, the key deciding
factor on the final sample location likely would be made based on the richness
of the volatiles present.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Once the
CAESAR spacecraft acquires its sample, it would quickly move away from the
comet to wait for the start of its journey back to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If all goes well, the sample would be
delivered to the Earth’s surface in the midmorning of November 20, 2038,
fourteen years after the mission’s launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Following the recovery of the sample capsule, the returned gases, ices,
and solids would be carefully curated and preserved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The initial analyses on a portion of the
sample would be conducted using laboratory instruments that would be 20 years
more advanced than those available today.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s expected that the samples would continue to be analyzed for decades
following their arrival on Earth as scientists develop more refined questions
and yet more advanced instruments.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Dragonfly</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">While
comet P67 is a well explored world, the surface of Saturn’s moon Titan largely remains
a blurry enigma. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to the Cassini
orbiter’s many flybys of the moon, we have low- to moderate-resolution maps of
the surface that show seas of liquid methane and ethane, extensive dune fields,
mountains, a paucity of craters, and river systems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We similarly have low resolution maps of
surface composition differences that are frequently ambiguous as to the actual material
present.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We know that sunlight
interacting with the atmosphere creates complex hydrocarbons and nitriles that
continuously rain down from the upper atmosphere to the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cassini’s instruments have observed changes
in the surface following rains of liquid methane.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There’s an interior water ocean that may be
in contact with the silicate core that could, like the interior oceans of
Europa and Enceladus, be an abode for life.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWv2kj0Suez8wnGkNrQJ3UPYe6wkmcXaro2ISf9rH80FoReDjIdY2aNHhw1rNYDfMFFBRB24RjisKWKVpd22NfvWV8QC_YllHnDmxqjvzLLp3hqI-eTNVsJXDji-8eF-g6_lNgW6Imkig/s1600/17-00084_fs_missionoverviewv7a16x9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="1600" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWv2kj0Suez8wnGkNrQJ3UPYe6wkmcXaro2ISf9rH80FoReDjIdY2aNHhw1rNYDfMFFBRB24RjisKWKVpd22NfvWV8QC_YllHnDmxqjvzLLp3hqI-eTNVsJXDji-8eF-g6_lNgW6Imkig/s400/17-00084_fs_missionoverviewv7a16x9.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Dragonfly rotorcraft shown in its initial landing in a
flat area between Titan’s equatorial dunes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">What we
know about the surface becomes the foundation for the fundamental questions
that require a return visit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What processes have reshaped the surface,
erasing, except in a few terrains, the many craters that should have accumulated?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Why hasn’t the rain of hydrocarbons buried
the surface over the age of the solar system, and where does new methane come
from to replace that lost to the formation of the hydrocarbons?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Are there cryovolcanoes that bring liquid water
to the surface?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What types of pre-biotic
chemistries occur on a world rich in hydrocarbons?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And is there evidence of life, either that
formed on the surface from the interaction of water and the hydrocarbons or
carried up from the deep subsurface global ocean?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or is there life based on non-water
chemistries?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">These
questions cannot be answered by landing at any single location on Titan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fortunately, this moon’s thick atmosphere and
low gravity make this the easiest world in the solar system for flight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The team proposing the Dragonfly mission have
designed a rotorcraft lander that can fly several tens of kilometers in a
single flight to a new site.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an hour
or so of flying, the craft might travel further than the Opportunity rover has
crawled across the surface of Mars in fourteen years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Over the course of several years at Titan,
the craft could explore a variety of terrains hundreds of kilometers apart.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Dragonfly proposal is possible because of the recent advances in multirotor
technology to enable steady flight (think of all the quadcopter hobby drones as
inexpensive examples) and autonomous flight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Cassini’s maps of the surface enable scientists to identify interesting
locations to visit but are too low resolution (the smallest details are
hundreds of meters across) to be useful to for inflight navigation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On each flight, Dragonfly would be given a
target location to fly to.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the
flight, a combination an inertial measurement unit, radar, and optical
navigation would be used to track progress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Once at a landing area, a laser system (lidar for those familiar with
the technology) would map the site to find a safe touch down site.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">On arrival
at Titan, the Dragonfly craft, safely enclosed in its entry capsule, would
directly enter the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once the
initial descent is completed, the Dragonfly rotorcraft would separate from the
capsule and guide itself to its first landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Much of Titan’s equatorial regions are covered by dunes that crest at 50
to 200 meters separated by flat plains two to four kilometers wide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The craft would use its sensors to guide
itself to one of these interdune areas to enable that crucial safe first
landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The sands
themselves are known to be composed of frozen organic particles that likely are
material blown in from large areas of the moon’s surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With its first landings in the dune sea, the
Dragonfly lander can explore how far organic chemistry has proceeded on this
hydrocarbon rich world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The interdune
plains may also contain exposed water ice that is the bedrock of Titan’s
surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sampling the primordial water
ice crust is a high priority to explore the chemistry present when Titan formed
and the surface and atmosphere may have been much different than they are
today.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Because
Titan’s surface is likely rugged at small scales, the Dragonfly team won’t send
the craft to land at an unseen location (except for that first landing).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, on its first flight following the
initial landing, the craft would be sent to scout for a next safe landing site
and then would return to the initial (and known to be safe) landing site.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the second flight, the Dragonfly craft would
fly past the second known safe landing site to scout a third, and then return
to the second site.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this way, the
mission would leapfrog from one known safe site to the next, using its sensors
to make up for the lack of high resolution orbital imagery.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Beyond
the dune seas, Titan has a rich variety of terrains to explore.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Life on the Earth is based on organic
chemistry enabled by liquid water.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
surface of Titan is too cold for liquid water – the water ice is as hard as
rock – but impacts would melt the ice, mixing the hydrocarbons with liquid H<sub>2</sub>O
for as long as tens of thousands of years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Where liquid water and the organic material on the surface mixed, complex
pre-biotic chemistry likely occurred, making Titan a natural laboratory to
explore the possible origins of life. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
sites would provide natural laboratories to explore the resulting pre-biotic
chemistry and explore avenues for the origins of life.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Cassini’s
data hint at features that may be extensive cryovolcanic flows where water from
the interior ocean reached the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If
the liquid water originated in the deep interior ocean, sampling these areas
may allow the Dragonfly instruments to determine the composition of that ocean,
including searching for signs of any life that may exist there. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">While
liquid water on the surface has likely been a rare event, liquid methane plays
the role on Titan that water does on Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The methane falls as rain, flows through river systems, and ends in
lakes and seas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Close to the equator
where the Dragonfly craft would roam, it appears that the seas have largely
dried up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The evaporation of the seas
could have concentrated chemical reactions, and the present dry-to-moist
surface would preserve the resulting material for Dragonfly’s instruments to
sample.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several areas near the equator
have been identified as possible dry sea beds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The currently-filled methane
seas in the north polar region would be in darkness and out of sight of Earth
for telecommunication during the Dragonfly mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their exploration would need to wait for
another mission a decade or so later).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Dragonfly’s explorations would be tempered by the need to carefully manage its
power use.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The craft would carry a
radioisotope power source that at Titan would supply a constant ~70 Watts of
electrical power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(And as importantly, it
provides plentiful supply of waste heat to keep the craft warm on the -180-degree
Celsius (-290-degree Fahrenheit) surface.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That supply is too low for the major power-hungry activities – flight
and returning data to Earth – but is enough to recharge a large battery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Operations would proceed at the pace of each
Titan day (around 16 Earth days).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During
the night, the battery recharges, followed by a daytime flight and a series of
science activities and data downlinks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During
the long night when Earth is out of sight, the craft would power down many
systems to keep its meteorology and seismic instruments powered and permit
battery charging.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The Curiosity rover
on Mars is similarly power limited.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its
radioisotope power source charges a battery that powers driving and many operations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The difference is that days on Mars have a
similar length to our own.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
public information on how far the Dragonfly craft might go in a single flight
is somewhat vague – the design is not yet complete and there’s a tradeoff
between larger batteries and weight and volume.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One article discusses an example battery that could allow up to 60
kilometers flight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It then states that
flights would be kept substantially shorter to provide a safety margin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the average distance between landing sites
is 20 kilometers when the goal is to transit distances, then over a five Earth
year mission, the craft might fly 1500 to 2000 kilometers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not all Titan days, though, are likely to be
spent with the goal of putting kilometers on the odometer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the craft finds a cryovolcanic volcano or
flow, for example, it may spend many months doing short flights to different
locations within the flow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some Titan
days may be spent doing aerial reconnaissance to map the feature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other Titan days might be spent doing bunny
hops between features in a single landing area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1tLc_4qW24ZO0QeFDlyvcClfrcApsZYgujx_2Z_yOHlF5Zz-oGAhZn0YAirI1fNRIMulS5rHICnO5gbVBsDT6O0l8QxQqiHzI0jJB74lhV0jJ2QyfX7McfIhnfEh3VhEJrdX11sxA3zU/s1600/Titan+surface+map.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="461" data-original-width="1008" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1tLc_4qW24ZO0QeFDlyvcClfrcApsZYgujx_2Z_yOHlF5Zz-oGAhZn0YAirI1fNRIMulS5rHICnO5gbVBsDT6O0l8QxQqiHzI0jJB74lhV0jJ2QyfX7McfIhnfEh3VhEJrdX11sxA3zU/s400/Titan+surface+map.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Examples of terrains within a region on Titan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The 5 µm bright areas have been interpreted
as dried sea beds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The distance across
the more detailed map is approximately 2700 kilometers at the equator.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: Dragonfly team.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Rather
than thinking of the Dragonfly craft as a global trekker, it seems more apt to
think of it as performing the equivalent of the missions of several rovers on
Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It would be able to transport
itself between and within several key landforms within a region of the
moon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Choose that region carefully,
though, and there’s a rich diversity to explore.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Within the black box on the map above lie
seas of sand dunes, several features that may be cryovolcanic, possible dried
sea beds, and what may be one of the oldest exposed terrains on the surface in
the Xanadu highlands with its mountains, river channels, and possible impact
craters.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">During
its flights, a set of cameras would look forward and downward during flights to
map the.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Huygens probe showed that
surface features can be distinguished in monochrome aerial images, and Dragonfly
would have some color imaging capability to discriminate differences in
composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission’s operators,
though, would need to balance the number of images returned with other demands
on the mission’s power supply.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
strategy would be to return thumbnails of images, from which the mission team
would select a subset to be returned at higher resolution.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">After
each landing, panoramic cameras would examine the local area while microscopic
cameras take close-up images.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Depending
on the wavelengths that the cameras can detect, Saturn may be visible in the
images in one of the spectral windows in which the atmosphere is
transparent.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once on the surface, a
gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer would measure the bulk surface composition
to discriminate between, for example, pure water ice, ammonia-rich water ice,
and a layer of hydrocarbons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Several
instruments would study meteorology both in flight and on the surface including
temperature, wind, and the methane humidity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Two instruments would listen for seismic activity and measure variations
in the extremely low frequency electromagnetic field to study the subsurface to
the depth of the interior water ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Other sensors would record the thermal and electrical properties of the
surface immediately around the landed craft.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
mission’s star instrument, however, would be its mass spectrometer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This instrument, derived from similar
instruments for the Mars Curiosity and the European ExoMars rovers, would be
able to detect the presence of different ices and hydrocarbons at minute
levels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By measuring the precise
chemistry of ices from different locations, scientists can understand the
processes that created them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
instrument’s sensitivity would make Dragonfly an exciting astrobiology mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It could, for example, measure tiny amounts
of key organic compounds such as amino acids, lipids, and sugars, as well as
the chirality of organic molecules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At
the minimum, Titan should have a treasure trove of pre-biotic material that
scientists would use to explore the chemical pathways leading to the complexity
of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And Titan is a possible abode
for life, either as-we-know-it based on water in the deep ocean or novel forms
of life based on liquid methane.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Proving
that life exists at the cellular level likely would be hard, but Dragonfly’s
measurements could be the bridge to future, even more sophisticated missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">-----------------</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Both CAESAR
and Dragonfly would be compelling missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is unfortunate that only one will be selected and the next
competition is likely to be several years in the future.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Launch
for the CEASAR mission would occur in the summer of 2024 and arrive at comet 67P
in December 2028.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The spacecraft would
depart from the comet in late 2033 and return to Earth five years later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">Launch
for the Dragonfly mission would occur in 2025 with arrival at Titan in the mid-2030s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Absent a crash or equipment failure, the
length of the mission would be dictated by the slow decay of power delivered
from its power supply.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eventually it would
take two, then three, and then more Titan days to recharge the battery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At some point, power would be too low to
enable any flight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then the craft would
become a stationary science station as power gradually fades until it becomes
silent likely sometime in the late 2030s or 2040s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
decision between these two excellent but fundamentally different missions will
be made in mid-2019 by NASA’s Associate Administrator for Science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His decision will determine whether the
2030s brings a flowering of science for comets or Titan. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;"><i>I would like to thank Steve Squyres, principal investigator for the CAESAR proposal, and Elizabeth (Zibi) Turtle and Jason Barnes, PI and deputy PI for the Dragonfly proposal, for their comments on an earlier draft of this story. </i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-76292577541551196592017-10-01T09:55:00.001-07:002017-10-01T09:55:08.589-07:00Venus Origins Explorer New Frontiers Proposal<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">When
I wrote my </span><a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2017/08/proposed-new-frontiers-missions.html"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">blog post
on the New Frontiers mission proposals</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">, I could identify eleven of the
twelve proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One, though, then had
no public trace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shortly after my piece
was published, several people emailed me to tell me that the twelfth proposal
was a third Venus mission called the Venus Origins eXplorer (VOX).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, they offered no details on its
implementation.</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Now
the team proposing the mission will present its implementation at an upcoming
scientific conference.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their abstract
for the talk reveals key facts about the proposal, and it’s a gutsy break with
the missions that have been assumed for New Frontiers Venus missions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0x7SJd3kernJN6ZE1zZnFEAD5jpjUkC7WczyQDBhl_LiSG074oLJJ2qn77e2H9AK6_oyFTZBn7SYo301CDLnmec0tXhFkyjsV2koLKS32nEnhk8HsaALjkC3jz5sdq0cj_j-MlEOUW8s/s1600/Venus_globe.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0x7SJd3kernJN6ZE1zZnFEAD5jpjUkC7WczyQDBhl_LiSG074oLJJ2qn77e2H9AK6_oyFTZBn7SYo301CDLnmec0tXhFkyjsV2koLKS32nEnhk8HsaALjkC3jz5sdq0cj_j-MlEOUW8s/s320/Venus_globe.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">NASA's Magellan spacecraft mapped the surface and gravity field of Venus in the early 1990s. The VOX mission would return with a modern suite of instruments to remap the surface and study the lower atmosphere. Credit: NASA/JPL.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">To
understand the strategy the VOX team is following, it’s useful to look at the
history of the Juno Jupiter orbiter mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Every ten years, the planetary scientific community establishes its
priorities for the exploration of the solar system in process known as the
Decadal Survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The 2003 Decadal Survey
report called for a Jupiter Polar Orbiter with Probes mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The orbiter was to study global patterns and
the magnetosphere while three atmospheric probes were to examine the
composition and deep structure of the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, since the Galileo mission with
its shallow atmospheric probe, the United States has lost the technology to
build probes capable of entering Jupiter’s atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The team that proposed the Juno mission focused
on the desired scientific goals and demonstrated that they could be met with
just an orbiter with the right instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Based on that well-presented argument, the mission was selected and is
now orbiting Jupiter.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
goals for a New Frontiers mission for Venus have assumed an atmospheric probe
that would also conduct surface measurements once it landed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The scientific requirements NASA’s managers
established for a mission appear tailored for that kind of a mission based on
the goals set out by the more recent 2013 Decadal Survey report.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, the ratio of key gasses and
their isotopes can only be made by a probe that enters and directly samples the
atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With those measurements,
other questions such as past hydrologic cycles and the existence of now lost
oceans can be addressed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During its
descent the probe could measure the properties of the atmosphere, its clouds,
and its winds at different altitudes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Measurements of the atmosphere at the surface could address the
weathering environment of the crust.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Chemical analysis of the soils and rocks at the landing site could
provide insight into the physics of and chemistry of the crust.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Two
of the proposed New Frontiers missions would fly either one or two entry
probe-landers to address these questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(You can see summaries of these at </span><a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2017/08/proposed-new-frontiers-missions.html"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">this blog
post</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
VOX proposal takes an entirely different approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the abstract states, “</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">At the time of the Decadal Survey the ability
to map mineralogy from orbit and present-day radar techniques to detect active
[surface] deformation were not fully appreciated. VOX leverages these methods
and <i>in-situ </i>noble gases to answer [the key] New Frontiers science objectives.” </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The VOX mission</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> would
deploy a small, simple atmospheric probe to make the measurements of the key
gases and isotopes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rest of the
measurements would be made from instruments on an orbiter, much as the Juno
mission uses orbital measurements to replace measurements from atmospheric
probes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The composition measurements for
Jupiter that could only be made from within an atmosphere had already been made
by the Galileo mission’s atmospheric probe.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
key elements of the VOX proposal closely resemble the VERITAS mission that was
a finalist for the last Discovery program mission but not selected (losing out
to the Lucy and Psyche asteroid missions).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The principal investigator for VERITAS and VOX are the same, Suzanne
Smrekar at the Jet Propulsion laboratory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The core of the VERITAS proposal was an orbiter that would carry a
modern radar instrument to remap Venus and a spectrometer to measure the surface
composition and study key aspects of the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If selected, the VERITAS mission team was
considering proposing a small atmospheric probe call Cupid’s Arrow to toe-dip
into the atmosphere to make key composition measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A version of that probe now called the
Atmospheric Sample Vehicle (ASV) would be included in the VOX mission.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
VOX orbiter would use three instruments to globally study Venus:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A
radar instrument would image the surface at 15- to 30-meter resolution, map
elevations to refine topography measurements, and search for minute changes in
surface elevations to look for evidence of current volcanic or tectonic
activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The improvements in resolution
for each of these would be one to two orders of magnitude better than those
made by the Magellan orbiter in the 1990s.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
orbiter’s radio signal would be used to map the gravity field at much higher
resolution than the Magellan mission to study the interior structure of the
planet</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
Venus Emissivity Mapper (VEM) would use spectral bands in five near-infrared wavelengths
where the atmosphere is transparent to map the surface composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Measurements in additional bands would study
cloud structure and the presence of water vapor in the lowermost atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8S2eivOp9wOAk_1mT6OOtq2Wo86x-BV_S_iHgbjy6zO9vv9MCKsHpE3g8QYSoicVFO7rsflUC9MDVbNbf37xOghcqECTtQxr2AUD6Valdjm4sCATTKAc8EcNQZkeGUojIFX8EgGFaqoY/s1600/Mapping+resolution+comparison.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="485" data-original-width="850" height="227" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8S2eivOp9wOAk_1mT6OOtq2Wo86x-BV_S_iHgbjy6zO9vv9MCKsHpE3g8QYSoicVFO7rsflUC9MDVbNbf37xOghcqECTtQxr2AUD6Valdjm4sCATTKAc8EcNQZkeGUojIFX8EgGFaqoY/s400/Mapping+resolution+comparison.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">These
images, derived from radar imaging of Hawaii, show the improvement in
resolution possible with modern radar systems compared to the data
returned by the Magellan mission. This image is from a poster
describing a 2012 JPL VERITAS mission that was proposed for the NASA
Discovery program. The VOX mission would carry the same radar instrument. Credit: JPL</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDDbtNQQkisQPytAiVPvy7K0My2NhgMNJbmLsSoWVQ9eSSlhTUim9JmWq6ouckoyD-7hbnaryxxybd6cjsnLRvaoZBdcZ3RbLEQcUfp7vhUtiC-R__9asG39us5ypUUqDXa6c9CIvJ3ng/s1600/Topography+resolution+comparison.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="515" data-original-width="521" height="395" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDDbtNQQkisQPytAiVPvy7K0My2NhgMNJbmLsSoWVQ9eSSlhTUim9JmWq6ouckoyD-7hbnaryxxybd6cjsnLRvaoZBdcZ3RbLEQcUfp7vhUtiC-R__9asG39us5ypUUqDXa6c9CIvJ3ng/s400/Topography+resolution+comparison.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">These
figures show the improvement in topographic resolution possible with a
modern radar instrument using data from Iceland. The top image shows
the equivalent Magellan resolution and the bottom image shows simulated
resolution possible from a new Venus radar mission. Credit: Decadal
Survey White Paper, NASA</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0kyhfUsuOKpJ_t8WEH1b5zrJy8uzBlnoKez0GQ6-dI3o9xu9o80JzrCdX9VbjYuZKJLh31PHiNSjvED7bnGLvKEm1eofWey9TAWi8zF0cgKFZtZcR94gF7GlhECjpTpDSlKvSGFrN3s0/s1600/Emissivity+mapping+example.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="225" data-original-width="400" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0kyhfUsuOKpJ_t8WEH1b5zrJy8uzBlnoKez0GQ6-dI3o9xu9o80JzrCdX9VbjYuZKJLh31PHiNSjvED7bnGLvKEm1eofWey9TAWi8zF0cgKFZtZcR94gF7GlhECjpTpDSlKvSGFrN3s0/s400/Emissivity+mapping+example.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18.4667px;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The
Venus Express mission carried out the first mapping of Venus’ surface
using thermal emissions. The VOX mission's Thermal Emissity Mapper instrument would create better composition maps than the Venus Express instrument. Red-orange colors in this Venus Express image
of Venus’ Idunn Mons volcanic peak indicate warmer areas suggesting
different surface compositions and younger ages than surrounding
material. Credit: ESA</span></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
ASV would be a small probe released from the orbiter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The probe would enter and briefly traverse
the upper atmosphere where it would collect a small sample of the gasses
present before its momentum carries it back into space.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once back above the atmosphere, a
miniaturized mass spectrometer would measure the composition of key gasses and
their isotopes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By only toe-dipping into
the atmosphere, the probe doesn’t need protection from the crushing pressures
and extremely high heat on the surface that the atmospheric probes of the other
New Frontiers Venus proposals require.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnAGdOL3HxfeuBkqqAy_SwkvHhSAmOrRDmp9ZtTzoOzMTm5VO25Z2waXgcvuNyQ4ynT5kOh-7UerR1z5RZe9MAn_fi-D2v1rOHOTeeE7SRa2DwkoEz2XDn7tx38yQaocnq_WbyzaceH04/s1600/Cupid%2527s+arrow+mission+overview.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1027" data-original-width="1376" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnAGdOL3HxfeuBkqqAy_SwkvHhSAmOrRDmp9ZtTzoOzMTm5VO25Z2waXgcvuNyQ4ynT5kOh-7UerR1z5RZe9MAn_fi-D2v1rOHOTeeE7SRa2DwkoEz2XDn7tx38yQaocnq_WbyzaceH04/s400/Cupid%2527s+arrow+mission+overview.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The VOX mission's Atmospheric Sample Vehicle would be based on the Cupid Arrow probe concept. Credit: NASA/JPL.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">While
the VOX mission is in competition with the two Venus entry probe-lander
proposals (and nine other proposals for other solar system destinations), in
many ways it is a compliment to those two missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Within the column of air in which they
descend and in a square meter or so at their landing sites, the two proposed
entry probe-lander missions would make much more detailed measurements than
VOX’s radar and VEM instruments would from orbit for the same location.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
VOX spacecraft’s instruments, however, would make those measurements over the
entire planet over at least three years (and possibly much longer in an
extended mission).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The VEM instrument,
for example, could look at the surface of every volcano on Venus searching for
the presence of minerals suggesting recent lava flows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The radar images could show whether the
features on the surface are consistent with new flows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Radar interferometric measurements could look
for small surface deformations that could reflect surface movement from
earthquakes associated with eruptions or swelling from underground lava
movement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>VEM measurements of the
atmosphere could look for changes in water vapor associated with volcanic
outgassing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And the gravity field
measurements would tie each volcano to the interior structure below the
surface.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
VOX mission would make comparable studies for all the surface types on Venus as
well as monitor the lower atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Perhaps most important of these would be observations of the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tessera, which are continent-sized highlands
that likely are the oldest surviving surfaces on the planet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For these, the synergy of composition
measurements, surface imaging, and interior structure measurements could reveal
key aspects of the earliest history of Venus including the role of liquid water
and other volatiles in the then cooler times.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In
one set of measurements, the VOX and the two Venus entry probe-lander missions
are in direct competition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In much the
same way as strata of rock record geologic history, the presence and abundance
of key gasses and their isotopes record the origin and evolution of the
atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the Venusian atmosphere
is in contact with the surface, it also records key geological events.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Measurements of xenon and its isotopes, which
have yet to be made at Venus, for example, would resolve key questions about
the origins of the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Xenon
measurements also would reveal the total amount of degassing from the planet’s
interior, which reflects the cumulative volcanic activity. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, a long-lost ocean at Venus would be
reflected in the ratio of hydrogen isotopes.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
US Pioneer Venus and Soviet Venera entry probe and landers carried
now-antiquated mass spectrometers that could not make key composition
measurements such as the isotope ratios of xenon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The VOX mission’s atmospheric probe would
deliver a modern mass spectrometer to Venus that would answer the key first
order atmospheric composition questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The other two proposed Venus missions would carry much more sophisticated
instruments that could also address second and third order questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By descending all the way to the surface, the
probes on these other missions would also study changes in composition at
different layers of the atmosphere and look for compounds that reflect the
current weathering at the surface.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">(As
a side note, I’ve been following proposals for missions to explore the solar
system for several decades now.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cupid’s
Arrow, and its incarnation as VOX’s ASV, is in my opinion one of the cleverest
solutions I’ve seen to addressing a key set of planetary science questions at a
fraction of the cost of much more capable entry probes like those that would be
the core of the other two Venus proposals.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">To
understand Venus, eventually it’s not a question of a VOX-like mission versus
entry probe-lander missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their
capabilities are complimentary – in depth at one or a few locations versus
broader measurements across the entire globe across a number of years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The interpretations of measurements from orbit,
especially those of composition, would greatly benefit from ground truth
measurements on the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eventually,
we need both types of missions to fly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(And
there’s also an entire branch of Venus science focused on global atmospheric
studies from orbit that neither of these types of mission addresses.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In
the last New Frontiers competition, a Venus entry probe-lander was a finalist
but lost out the OSIRIS-REx mission now inflight to return a sample from the
asteroid Bennu.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the current
Frontiers competition, NASA will select just one mission from among three proposals
for Venus, one to return samples from the moon, three to return samples from a
comet, and four to study Saturn or its moons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s a tough field.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the end of
this year, we’ll learn whether VOX is selected as a finalist in the current
competition with the final selection planned for 2019.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Appendix:
Here is the full list of studies proposed for the VOX mission from the
conference abstract:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Atmospheric physics/chemistry:
noble gases and isotopes to constrain atmospheric sources, escape processes,
and integrated volcanic outgassing; global search for current volcanically
outgassed water.<br />
2. Past hydrological cycles: global tessera composition to determine the role
of volatiles in crustal formation.<br />
3. Crustal physics/chemistry: global crustal mineralogy/chemistry, tectonic
processes, heat flow, resolve the catastrophic vs. equilibrium resurfacing
debate, active geologic processes and possible crustal recycling.<br />
4. Crustal weathering: surface-atmosphere weathering reactions from redox state
and the chemical equilibrium of the near-surface atmosphere.<br />
5. Atmospheric properties/winds: map cloud particle modes and their temporal
variations, and track cloud-level winds in the polar vortices.<br />
6. Surface-atmosphere interactions: chemical reactions from mineralogy;
weathering state between new, recent and older flows; possible volcanically
outgassed water.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-28826984822400295782017-09-03T15:19:00.000-07:002017-09-03T15:19:12.707-07:00Articles, September 3, 2017<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The last two weeks have seen a number of articles and press releases on
future planetary exploration.<span> </span>The big
news was that NASA’s managers are proposing a fast track Mars sample return mission
for the mid-2020s. <span> </span>Numerous articles
were written; I’ve listed several that I thought were among the best I saw.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">You might also want to check out Leonard David’s story, Beating
Curiosity, on the technical enhancements that will enable the Mars 2020 rover
mission.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">For fans of Titan exploration, there’s now a website for the proposed
Dragonfly rotocraft and an article on the proposed Oceanus orbiter.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Several other articles discuss other plans and proposals to explore the
planets.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Mars</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://aerospaceamerica.aiaa.org/features/beating-curiosity/">Beating
Curiosity</a></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">By Leonard
David|September 2017</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/casey-dreier/2017/20170831-future-in-focus-for-mep.html">A
future comes into focus for the Mars Exploration Program</a></span></span></span></h1>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/about/staff/casey-dreier.html"><span>Casey
Dreier</span></a> • <span class="utc830365242">August 31, 2017</span></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/08/28/nasa-studies-mission-to-return-samples-from-mars-by-end-of-2020s/">NASA
studies mission to return samples from Mars by end of 2020s</a> </span></span></span></h1>
<div class="mh-meta" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="entry-meta-date"><a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/08/">August 28, 2017</a></span> <span class="entry-meta-author"><a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/author/stephen-clark/">Stephen Clark</a></span>
</span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2017/20170828-mars-2020-sample-return.html">NASA
considers kicking Mars sample return into high gear</a></span></span></span></h1>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/about/staff/jason-davis.html"><span>Jason
Davis</span></a> • <span class="utc829517062">August 28, 2017</span></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6934">NASA's Next Mars
Mission to Investigate Interior of Red Planet</a></span></span></span></h1>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Titan</b></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://www.space.com/37921-oceanus-orbiter-for-saturn-moon-titan.html">Proposed
Orbiter Could Probe the Ocean Beneath Saturn's Moon Titan</a></span></span></span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="authors">By
</span><span class="author">Nola Taylor Redd</span><span class="authors">, </span>August 24th, 2017<span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-apl-dragonfly-mission-explore-potential.html">APL
proposes Dragonfly mission to explore potential habitable sites on Saturn's
largest moon</a></span></span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h1>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/">Dragonfly
website</a></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mk1zVxwq7O4">Presentation on Dragonfly
(YouTube)</a></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Venus</b></span></span></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-clockwork-rover-venus.html">A clockwork
rover for Venus</a></span></span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-nasa-cubesat-mission-venusian-mystery.html">NASA
studies CubeSat mission to solve Venusian mystery</a></span></span></span>
</h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h1>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="postedby" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Rounding out the field</b></span></span></div>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-james-webb-telescope-solar-ocean.html">James
Webb Telescope will study our solar system's 'ocean worlds'</a></span></span></span></h1>
<h5 style="line-height: normal; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">August 24, 2017 by Eric Villard </span></span></span></h5>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3306/1">CubeSats: faster and
cheaper, but are they better?</a></span></span></span>
</div>
<h3 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">by
Jeff Foust</span></span></span></h3>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-85096941005069851502017-08-19T20:36:00.002-07:002017-08-19T20:36:18.246-07:00Articles, August 29. 2017<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span>Press Releases</span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2017-08/gc-m2m081617.php"><b><span>Mars
2020 mission to use smart methods to seek signs of past life</span></b></a></span><b><span> </span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-nasa-cubesat-mission-venusian-mystery.html">NASA
studies CubeSat mission to solve Venusian mystery</a></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="http://spaceref.com/moon/nasa-studies-tethered-cubesat-mission-to-study-lunar-swirls.html">NASA
Studies Tethered CubeSat Mission to Study Lunar Swirls</a></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span>Space.com</span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="https://www.space.com/37815-nasa-mars-sample-return-plans.html"><b><span>Mars
Sample Return: Scientists Debate How to Bring Red Planet Rocks to Earth</span></b></a><span class="MsoHyperlink"></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>By Leonard David</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span>Science</span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/08/missions-probe-exoplanets-galaxies-and-cosmic-inflation-vie-250-million-nasa-slot?rss=1"><b><span>Missions
to probe exoplanets, galaxies, and cosmic inflation vie for $250 million NASA
slot</span></b></a></span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><b><span></span></b></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="byline" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>By
<a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/author/daniel-clery">Daniel Clery</a> Aug.
16, 2017</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="byline" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="byline" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span>The Space Review</span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3306/1">CubeSats: faster and
cheaper, but are they better?</a></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">By Jeff Foust</span></span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>Space News</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><a href="http://spacenews.com/beyond-hal-how-artificial-intelligence-is-changing-space-systems/">Beyond
HAL: How artificial intelligence is changing space systems</a></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span class="authors"><span style="font-weight: normal;">by <a href="http://spacenews.com/author/debra-werner/" title="Posts by Debra Werner">Debra
Werner</a> — <time datetime="2017-08-15">August 15, 2017</time></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span> </span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>China Spaceflight</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span></h1>
<h1 style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://www.chinaspaceflight.com/satellite/Deepspace/CE-6/CE-6.html"><b>Chang'e
VI: plans to be launched around Wenchang from around 2020 to achieve the return
of the lunar poles</b></a></span></span></span></h1>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span><div class="byline" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>Unless you read Chinese, you’ll
need a translation program such as Google translate</span><span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
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<![endif]-->Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-69197389929536096012017-08-04T19:42:00.000-07:002017-08-11T06:45:39.496-07:00Proposed New Frontiers Missions<!--[if !mso]>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">NASA’s managers are in the processing selecting the agency's next
planetary mission from a field of twelve competitors. This fourth mission
in the New Frontiers program will follow in the footsteps of the three missions
in this program that have already launched: The New Horizons Pluto spacecraft, the
Juno Jupiter orbiter, and the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return
mission. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">By law, NASA’s managers cannot reveal
information on the proposals submitted to protect the proprietary ideas of the
proposing teams. However, the proposing teams often will disclose some
information on their proposed missions at meetings and conferences. For
the past year, I’ve been collecting their presentations and abstracts and can
describe nine of the twelve missions in this article. (For two other
proposals, I know only their target, and the twelfth proposal remains a
mystery.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">New Frontiers missions are a key
component of NASA's program to explore the solar system. Like Goldilocks's
bears, NASA's planetary missions come in three sizes. At the low end,
costing $600-700 million, are the more frequent Discovery missions that address
tightly-focused questions on (for planetary exploration) tight budgets.
NASA plans to fly several Discovery missions in the coming decade. At the
high end, typically costing greater than $2 billion, are the Flagship missions
that host a wide range of instruments for in-depth studies. NASA
typically flies just one Flagship mission a decade, although the next decade
will see two launches, the Mars 2020 rover and the Europa Clipper.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">However, there are a range of studies
that the scientific community deems essential to understanding the solar system
that can't fit within the Discovery program, but don't require a Flagship
mission. This is the role of the New Frontiers program with missions
costing somewhere around $1 billion with a planned flight rate of two per
decade.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The list of possible missions for the
New Frontiers program are pre-selected by a panel of scientists once a decade
in a process that sets exploration priorities known as the Decadal
Survey. For this current competition, NASA’s managers added two
additional targets, Saturn’s moons Enceladus and Titan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The New Frontiers missions that have
been publicly described include proposals that emphasize composition
measurements to address the formation and evolution of the solar system
(the CONDOR and CORSAIR comet sample return and the SPRITE Saturn probe
proposals) or the formation and evolution of terrestrial worlds (the VISAGE and
VICI Venus atmospheric probe-landers and the lunar Moonrise sample return
proposals). The ELF Enceladus mission, the Titan Oceanus orbiter, and the
Titan Dragonfly rotocraft would explore their target worlds for habitability
and signs of life. The latter two missions also would continue the
broader exploration of Titan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The selection of any of these missions
would significantly advance planetary science. NASA will choose among
them based on two criteria: Would the proposed mission likely meet its
scientific goals? How feasible is the mission technically within the
budget cap of $850 million for the spacecraft, instruments, and mission
operations? (Additional costs such as launch would raise the final cost
to around $1 billion.) The review process is thorough and daunting; any
weaknesses on either criterion can disqualify a proposal or cause it to be
ranked poorly compared to its competitors.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">NASA expects to select two to three of
these proposed missions this fall for further definition and review. The
winning mission will be chosen from this short list by mid-2019 for launch no
later than 2025. Travel time to the selected destination could be as
short as a few days or as long as twelve years.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdooSGkoWM2QIlicGcaGS8_IsruwF409lzFk_343uY_sU2GO6k3mdhT0F7dhuYgMWJ2uhmo2EhLZcz_uwLH_QCdJYf2wWL6xhXWCxDhk5IJNlgg_ZBecqi3G-uULycvKS-AgigoAU6cZU/s1600/Timeline.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="449" data-original-width="1370" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdooSGkoWM2QIlicGcaGS8_IsruwF409lzFk_343uY_sU2GO6k3mdhT0F7dhuYgMWJ2uhmo2EhLZcz_uwLH_QCdJYf2wWL6xhXWCxDhk5IJNlgg_ZBecqi3G-uULycvKS-AgigoAU6cZU/s400/Timeline.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Dates for key events in the proposed
New Frontiers missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*Proposing teams
have not given dates for the Moonrise and Dragonfly Titan missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dates shown are my best estimates based on
the requirement to launch by the end of 2025 and flight times to reach
destinations.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Venus In Situ Explorer</span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsXvZCHgrImGCfhVZDrHVYj5TQghBiOPnehRRl3QHfW8bWNLXo1G4htEWW1kWi9b97_rQMIDkDoW8mPxkgkSKqmtux7YACM9akwVGjOxpKLBYIvvsSZBSViipcyOLjM8mt0OIc5lBkM_o/s1600/20150823_Venera13_FINAL_UnmSpsc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="349" data-original-width="1600" height="86" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsXvZCHgrImGCfhVZDrHVYj5TQghBiOPnehRRl3QHfW8bWNLXo1G4htEWW1kWi9b97_rQMIDkDoW8mPxkgkSKqmtux7YACM9akwVGjOxpKLBYIvvsSZBSViipcyOLjM8mt0OIc5lBkM_o/s400/20150823_Venera13_FINAL_UnmSpsc.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Two of the proposed New Frontiers
missions would return to land on Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Image from the Soviet Venera 13 lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Credit: </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Brown University
/ Vernadsky Institute / Olivier de Goursac</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Two key questions have led the two
Decadal Surveys (published in 2002 and 2012) to include a mission to directly
sample the atmosphere and surface of Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The first is how terrestrial planets formed and the second is how Venus
evolved from a world that likely had a moderate climate with oceans to its
present hellish conditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the 2002
Decadal Survey report notes, “Venus and Earth may have had very similar surface
conditions early in their histories, but Venus’s subsequent evolution was
different from Earth’s, developing an environment unsuitable for life. However,
Venus is still a dynamic world with active geochemical cycles and non-equilibrium
environments in the clouds and near surface that are not understood.”</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">To meet the goals of this mission, a
spacecraft would need to conduct two sets of measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, it would make detailed measurements of
the atmosphere’s composition during its descent to and on the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mixture of gases in a planet’s
atmosphere, especially the ratios of isotopes of key elements, provides both a
fossil record of that world’s formation and evolution and insights into current
processes such as surface weathering and volcanic activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Once on the surface, the craft would measure the composition of the
rocks and soils to allow scientists to reconstruct the processes that initially
formed that location and subsequently modified it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Soviet and American probes in the
1970s and 1980s performed both sets of measurements, but the then available
technology lacked the precision to answer key questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The two proposed New Frontiers missions would
each carry the latest generation of instruments that would provide far more
detailed measurements than their predecessors.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In the last New Frontiers competition,
a Venus proposal led by Larry Esposito of the University of Colorado was a
finalist but wasn’t selected to fly (losing out to the OSIRIS-REx mission).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Esposito is again leading a team for the
current competition, proposing the Venus In Situ Atmospheric and Geochemical
Explorer (VISAGE) mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the
atmospheric descent, the VISAGE craft would use a mass spectrometer to measure atmospheric
composition and a suite of instruments to measure the temperature, pressure,
and wind profiles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mass spectrometers
are the workhorse instrument for atmospheric composition measurements, and
you’ll notice that several of the proposed New Frontiers missions would carry
one or more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mass spectrometers “weigh”
the material they sample and the distribution of those weights reveal the
composition of the atmospheric gases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Versions also exist that can be used for composition studies of ice and
dust particles.)</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Once on the surface, a drill on the
VISAGE lander would retrieve soil samples from “two depths” and deliver them
inside the spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There, one or
more instruments could operate at moderate temperatures to make detailed
elemental and mineralogical composition measurements. (The X-ray fluorescence
instrument would almost certainly be entirely inside the craft’s pressure
vessel.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission’s visible and
near-infrared spectrometer likely also would view the samples inside the craft,
but might also examine composition outside the craft through a window.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cameras to image the surface during the
descent and take panoramas after landing would round out the instrument
package.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because of the extreme
temperatures on the surface, the craft would survive to make measurements for
only several hours.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Venus In situ Composition Investigations
(VICI) mission led by Lori Glaze of NASA’s Goddard Spaceflight Center would
address the same overalls goals but with a different emphasis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the VISAGE mission would accept the
complexity of a drill and air lock to bring samples inside the craft for
improved soil measurements, the VICI mission would carry a second instrument (a
tunable laser spectrometer) in addition to the mass spectrometer for improved
atmospheric composition measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tunable
laser spectrometers complement mass spectrometers by being able to precisely
measure specific isotope ratios and the abundance of key gases such as water,
carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">On the surface, another instrument
uses Raman and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy to study the composition of
the rocks and soil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This instrument would
fire laser pulses through a window to measure composition at multiple locations
near the craft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At lower power but
higher wavelength, the laser enables Raman spectroscopy for mineralogical
measurements, and at higher power but a lower wavelength the laser melts a tiny
portion of the soil or rock for elemental measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Additional VICI instruments would provide further surface measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A gamma-ray
spectrometer would sense the presence of trace amounts of radioactive elements
in the soil through the hull to characterize bulk composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the VISAGE mission, the VICI mission
would image the surface during its descent, but there’s no mention of a camera
to take panoramic images once on the ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The conference abstract describing the
VISAGE mission doesn’t mention where on Venus it would land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(In the previous New Frontiers competition,
Esposito’s proposed mission would have landed on what is believed to be relatively
fresh lava flows.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The VICI mission
would target the continent-size tessera highlands that are believed to be the
oldest surviving surfaces on the planet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And while the VISAGE mission apparently would deliver a single lander,
the VICI mission would deliver two landers.</span></div>
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample
Return</span></b></div>
<b>
</b><br />
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></b></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjh2VfAQ1QKKEaIN5Hcwqg8rcyLg5AGYDAf_lmTzQMiIBH05Qyd7Es31fL0nM55OzAQXZo0lKsqqfcsH8AJaJmgcggJdB_bZ5s0mjk69tjFY0m0B3sdkfzYloDGBrEE9BQ8yCQkcOEavxg/s1600/Moonrise.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="585" data-original-width="437" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjh2VfAQ1QKKEaIN5Hcwqg8rcyLg5AGYDAf_lmTzQMiIBH05Qyd7Es31fL0nM55OzAQXZo0lKsqqfcsH8AJaJmgcggJdB_bZ5s0mjk69tjFY0m0B3sdkfzYloDGBrEE9BQ8yCQkcOEavxg/s320/Moonrise.jpg" width="239" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Moonrise lander and ascent vehicle
concept from the last New Frontiers competition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: JPL and the Moonrise team</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sample return missions are the
ultimate composition-focused missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their
effective instrument suite for studying the elements and minerals in their
returned samples includes all the instruments currently in terrestrial
laboratories plus many yet to be developed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Some of the experiments on those instruments likely will be performed by
scientists not yet born.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Apollo
lunar samples continue to be analyzed 45 years after the last was collected.</span>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">No spacecraft could hope to carry
instruments that can match the capabilities of the best instruments on
Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, sample return is
often viewed as the ultimate goal of planetary science after the missions of
exploration have told us enough about a world or class of worlds to ask
detailed, targeted questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
addition to the lunar and comet sample return missions proposed for this New
Frontiers completion, there have been three missions launched to return samples
from asteroids, Japan plans to return samples from the Martian moon Phobos, and
both the United States and China are working toward returning samples from Mars.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In the case of the moon, we have
samples from a number of locations from the American Apollo and Soviet unmanned
missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, answering many of the
specific questions that remain about the moon require samples from carefully
selected new locations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is driving
the Chinese lunar sample return mission planned for the next year and the
proposed Moonrise New Frontiers mission.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Over four billion years ago, an impact
on the early moon excavated the largest crater in the solar system creating the
South Pole-Aitken Basin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The impact exposed
buried layers within the crust and appears to have dug into the mantle below.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later volcanic eruptions occurred over
portions of the basin creating small mare.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Subsequent impacts are believed to have spread material that resulted
from these events across the basin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A kilogram
or two of soil (technically, regolith) from this basin should include samples
from across this basin that would record how the moon formed and the role of
cataclysmic impacts in the history of the terrestrial planets.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Moonrise lander would touch down
within the basin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its robotic arm then would
sieve the surface to collect thousands of tiny (3-20 millimeters) rock fragments because those are what are needed to determine
ages and to identify deep-seated materials excavated by the impact. </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A small bulk sample of the regolith
would also be collected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Each of these rock fragments carries
the story of its creation in its composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">An ascent
vehicle would return these samples to Earth where each rock fragment can be
analyzed in detail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scientists would be
able to place the revealed history of each fragment in the context of the
evolution of the moon and the evolution of the Solar System in its first 500
million years using the extensive remote sensing data collected by lunar
orbiters and samples from other sites.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In the last two New Frontiers
competitions, the Moonrise mission was a finalist for both.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Comet Surface Sample Return</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfobiBsjcQv7YQgOjx9YmU6rGVo5Z7Lh4xjNaCYeeycW9FASUV1Ayd4wWBX8joXNjaeCxIN0wYEKMHyW8_BQ5Hoki4AjlJ9hOq2ARfecyvKKx5vlHAn40E7nf-IS1SvCaVV0T6BCwe_RQ/s1600/Rosetta+image.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1600" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfobiBsjcQv7YQgOjx9YmU6rGVo5Z7Lh4xjNaCYeeycW9FASUV1Ayd4wWBX8joXNjaeCxIN0wYEKMHyW8_BQ5Hoki4AjlJ9hOq2ARfecyvKKx5vlHAn40E7nf-IS1SvCaVV0T6BCwe_RQ/s320/Rosetta+image.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The CONDOR mission would return to
comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (shown here) to collect two samples for study
in terrestrial laboratories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The CORSAIR
mission would return studies from a comet, 88P/Howell, that has never been
visited by a spacecraft. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for
OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA; processing by Giuseppe Conzo</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Because they spent almost their entire
history in the deep outer solar system, comets likely preserve ices and organic
materials that have undergone little modification over the eons.
Scientists are particularly interested in studying the organic material to
better understand the processes that created them and to understand what
organic material were possibly delivered to the early Earth. Comets are
also rich in dust particles that each can tell a story about the materials from
which the sun’s rocky worlds formed. The Stardust mission collected
hundreds of dust particles during a high-speed encounter with a comet.
However, the collection process necessarily degraded the samples and no ices
were collected. To fully understand the history recorded in comets,
scientists have made returning minimally-altered samples from a comet their top
priority for future comet studies.</span>
</div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The proposed COmet Nucleus Dust and
Organics Return (CONDOR) mission would collect up to two samples of material
from the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, each of which would
represent at least 50 grams in mass. The samples would be collected during
brief and gentle touch-and-grabs that would cause little or no modification to
the comet material. To get material that would be as least altered as possible by
the sun’s heat, the samples would include material from up to 15 centimeters
below the surface. After collection, the samples would be maintained at less
than -20 degrees Celsius during the return trip and refrigerated at -80 degrees
Celsius at NASA’s curation facility to prevent alteration of the samples.
For materials such as hydrogen cyanide and carbon dioxide that would sublimate
at these temperatures, the sample container will trap the gases from these ices
for study on Earth. </span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Many of you likely recognize that the
target comet for this mission, P67, is the same one examined in depth by the
Rosetta mission. By returning to this richly-studied comet, scientists
will be able to understand the samples acquired within the context of the
entire body. The CONDOR spacecraft also will use its camera and
measurements of the gravity field to study how P67 has changed during its
passes through the inner solar system since the end of the Rosetta
mission. </span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A second comet mission, the COmet
Rendezvous, Sample Acquisition, Investigation, and Return (CORSAIR) mission
would sample a comet, 88P/Howell, that has never been visited by a
spacecraft. This creates the opportunity to explore a new comet
in-depth. Where the CONDOR spacecraft would carry just two instruments
(with its radio system for gravity studies an effective third instrument), the
CORSAIR spacecraft would carry five instruments to measure the composition of
the gases and dust released by the comet and to remotely image and study the
surface (plus the radio system) for 10 months. Two samples from at least
10 cm below the surface would be collected using a harpoon system along with
nine collections of dust gathered from the coma. The samples would not be
kept refrigerated; instead, “any volatile ices that are collected are
sublimated from the samples and chemically characterized before return” by the
instruments on the spacecraft’s mass spectrometer instrument.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">There is reportedly a third comet
sample return proposal led by Stephen Squyres who has also led the Mars Spirit
and Opportunity rover missions.</span></div>
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<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Trojan Tour and Rendezvous</span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Trojan asteroids share Jupiter’s
orbit around the sun and are believed to have originated from a range of
locations in the early solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
this reason, the scientific community has prioritized a mission to study
several of these worlds and orbit at least one to learn about their origins and
how they shifted position as the solar system formed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I have not found any information on
New Frontiers proposals to study them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The selection of a simpler flyby mission, Lucy, last year to study these
worlds may have led potential proposers to conclude that NASA is unlikely to
select two Trojan missions back to back.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Saturn
Atmospheric Probe</span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">For over a decade, the Cassini
spacecraft has observed Saturn’s atmosphere to study its composition and
weather.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although remote sensing is
invaluable for studying and understanding a planet’s atmosphere, there are
certain very key measurements that remote sensing spacecraft are not capable of
providing. In particular, noble gases that carry the signature of the epoch,
location, and conditions of planetary formation are undetectable from outside
the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So are the details of
many atmospheric processes including the detailed thermal structure and
stability of the atmosphere, the deep cloud structures, and the winds.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Saturn PRobe Interior and
aTmosphere Explorer (SPRITE) mission would deliver a probe to Saturn’s
atmosphere. As with the proposed Venus missions, scientists have many questions
about Saturn’s formation and evolution that can only be answered by directly
measuring the precise composition of its atmosphere with a descent probe. Among
those questions are where in the early solar system Saturn formed and what role
it played in the possible migration of the giant planets following their formation
- first inward and then outward to their present locations. Measurements of the
helium abundance could resolve a mystery of why Saturn is much warmer today
than simple models of its evolution suggest it should be. A rain of helium deep
in the deep atmosphere could be the explanation, in which case helium abundance
should be depleted in the upper atmosphere where the probe can make its
studies. For these measurements, the SPRITE probe, like the proposed VICI Venus
probe, would carry both a mass spectrometer and a tunable laser spectrometer.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Another set of questions for the
SPRITE probe revolve around the meteorology of the upper atmosphere. During its
approximately 90-minute descent, SPRITE would measure thermal structure:
temperature vs. pressure, and the change in Saturn’s wind from the cloud tops
to the deeper atmosphere. SPRITE would also determine the locations and
compositions of Saturn’s different cloud decks. Together these measurements
will extend Cassini’s remote measurements of Saturn’s meteorology below the
level of the highest cloud tops. Prior to entry, a camera on the SPRITE
carrier-relay spacecraft would remotely image the atmosphere – both near the
probe entry point and globally - so that the probe’s measurements can be
understood in their global context and connected back to prior missions
equipped with only remote sensing instruments.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGrXPlcAkaO6z9xDV8cQLhOdPv27NEVb2L1q4Fv1IVC6Ho2FFTWTkMNwl9svOSyENVPw7F7gcknp4xXVpn2F0WDRxYIA_NRKemlaVmOvkBIXBE7QGIlA78dmONy45X-ZgdXJe5_ekuU5s/s1600/SPRITE.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="972" height="137" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGrXPlcAkaO6z9xDV8cQLhOdPv27NEVb2L1q4Fv1IVC6Ho2FFTWTkMNwl9svOSyENVPw7F7gcknp4xXVpn2F0WDRxYIA_NRKemlaVmOvkBIXBE7QGIlA78dmONy45X-ZgdXJe5_ekuU5s/s400/SPRITE.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Mission timeline for the proposed
SPRITE mission to deliver a probe into the atmosphere of Saturn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: SPRITE team/JPL/NASA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ocean
Worlds</span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Saturn’s moons Enceladus and Titan
have two proposed missions between them, although for one Enceladus mission, I
have found only its name, Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span> (ELSAH).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
proposers for the other mission, the Enceladus Life Finder (ELF), on the other
hand, have provided considerable information their concept.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Cassini mission discovered that this moon
is venting material from its internal ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Extensive studies of the plumes suggest that this world may have the
conditions needed to host life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Cassini’s now-vintage 1990s era instruments, though, left key questions
unanswered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the Cassini
spacecraft performed extensive studies of Enceladus, the ELF spacecraft could
focus its studies on what is perhaps the biggest question of all, is there life
elsewhere in the universe?</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The ELF spacecraft would enter Saturn
orbit and repeatedly fly through this moon’s plumes to determine whether its
oceans have the conditions needed to be habitable and whether there are complex
organic molecules suggesting pre-biotic chemistry or possibly life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The spacecraft would carry three mass
spectrometers to study the composition of the gases and ice and dust particles
in the plumes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The measurements from
these instruments would be far more sensitive than their counterparts on the
Cassini spacecraft allowing the mission to address subtle questions of
habitability and life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A camera will
also take what the mission’s principle investigator, Jonathan Lunine of Cornell
University, says will be spectacular images.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5zfjHwIW1o5ODRDVAlOPglMGnNfHOqNrsxt1uaikjlrY5swbSeO7rmBD2m36n5KEmmv81Kj3Mm9DDcGvWCOmQCCnn2cQciwMh7r64vvtCN5BdLpTVYuagvoBImxOEUTgHDsO9u71ou7E/s1600/ELF.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="670" data-original-width="1275" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5zfjHwIW1o5ODRDVAlOPglMGnNfHOqNrsxt1uaikjlrY5swbSeO7rmBD2m36n5KEmmv81Kj3Mm9DDcGvWCOmQCCnn2cQciwMh7r64vvtCN5BdLpTVYuagvoBImxOEUTgHDsO9u71ou7E/s400/ELF.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The ELF mission would make ten passes
through the plumes of Enceladus to investigate that moon’s habitability and
search for signs of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: ELF
team/JPL/NASA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The two proposed Titan missions would
have more wide-ranging goals than any of the other New Frontiers
proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both seek to explore Titan as
a diverse world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>
</div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Oceanus mission would target the
ocean world Titan first through a series of flybys and then from two years in
orbit. The spacecraft would explore the creation of complex organic
molecules by skimming through the upper atmosphere and measuring the
composition using a mass spectrometer that has an order of magnitude greater
sensitivity, mass resolution, and mass range than the one the Cassini
spacecraft carries. The principle investigator for this proposal,
Christophe Sotin with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, wrote me, “What I find
fascinating is that both early Earth and Titan have methane in the upper
atmosphere. We have very little information about what happened on Earth as
life was emerging. Observing Titan is a window to early Earth to understand
what kind of organic chemistry happened there and whether it played a key role
in the evolution of life 3.5 billion years ago.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These molecules high in the atmosphere that
the Oceanus spacecraft would measure eventually drift to the surface to create
organic-rich landscapes.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The spacecraft also would use a camera
that observes the surface through the hazy methane-rich atmosphere in three
infrared bandwidths to map the distribution of the organics that fall to the
surface to understand where they accumulate, how they are transported across
the surface, and where they have been eroded. Scientists also would use
the camera to map the variability of water ice exposed on the surface. A
radar instrument and gravity studies would be used together to understand the
structure of the crust and deep interior including the characteristics of the
salty water ocean that lies beneath the crust. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Scientists have two key questions
regarding that ocean. Is it in contact with the rocky core of the
moon? If so, then key silicate elements needed to support life would be
available, as they are believed to be at Europa and Enceladus. And, are
the rich deposits of organics and the liquid water brought into contact through
processes such as water volcanism or deep impact cratering? If complex
organics, water, and silicates are found to mix, the case for Titan as a
possible abode for life would be strong.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">As a side note, both the ELF and
Oceanus spacecraft would use solar arrays to generate their power. Just a
few years ago, it was assumed that any mission to the Saturn system would
require radioisotope generators for power. Advances in using solar cells
together with designs for very large arrays reduces both the cost and
complexity of exploring these moons from orbit.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj79cgx5WpP-MyObPuk3pCZ2lU3QnnCEEE4K0Dqj-f9Yp839zuHD1ogeIOP8vk7woKkcspvFDvCrRFxFLnb3F8MbmqyyojfZMiw3vatRV18T7qsImxApjtDJ93DMjRvBtopGV8X-9iqWdg/s1600/Oceanus.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="820" data-original-width="784" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj79cgx5WpP-MyObPuk3pCZ2lU3QnnCEEE4K0Dqj-f9Yp839zuHD1ogeIOP8vk7woKkcspvFDvCrRFxFLnb3F8MbmqyyojfZMiw3vatRV18T7qsImxApjtDJ93DMjRvBtopGV8X-9iqWdg/s400/Oceanus.png" width="381" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Oceanus spacecraft would map large
portions of Titan’s surface in three infrared bands at much higher resolution
than the Cassini spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From its
orbit about the moon, the spacecraft will be able to image the surface at 25
meter resolution, about four times higher resolution than in the image from the
Huygens probe (bottom left).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit:
Oceanus team/JPL/NASA</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The second proposed Titan mission may
be the most audacious mission that I believe I have ever seen proposed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This moon’s thick atmosphere and low gravity
make it the easiest location in the solar system in which to fly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recent advances in robotic flight make it
possible for a craft to autonomously fly and land without direct control.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposers of the Dragonfly mission
combine these two facts to propose a rotocraft that would repeatedly fly up to tens
of kilometers between landing sites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Imagine if the Mars rovers had been able to study and sample locations
along a traverse hundreds or thousands of kilometers long instead of the tens
of kilometers they have been able to do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Dragonfly mission would directly explore both the habitability of
Titan and search for complex organic molecules that could help us understand
how life can arise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can also search for
chemical signs of life on this moon.</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Dragonfly science would be split
between flight and landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While
flying, it would remotely study the surface below, sample the atmospheric
composition, and profile the vertical structure of the air.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The craft could not continuously fly – it
needs to recharge batteries from a radioisotope generator during landings to
store enough energy for the next flight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At each landing site, it would study
the composition of the organics and ices using both a mass spectrometer and a
neutron-activated gamma-ray spectrometer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Titan's day is 16 Earth-days long, so the operations timescale is
relaxed and there's plenty of time to make measurements as well as recharging.
Most of the time is spent on the ground, and in addition to the
compositional measurements Dragonfly would use meteorological and seismic
instruments to study Titan's atmosphere and interior.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy5Dm8rB-C45Sc99AKkkRsPlboEkFOfHOYKqV3YQikaTj6Z9yfStOD2N4phpc4GIrTFtWz6rLXLskwYPfcg37d9cjp_a3irIk7rFYA0ZMnUuIbzFyncxkhIhhklesLtb2wdr0Z2UER8NY/s1600/Dragonfly.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="461" data-original-width="1008" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy5Dm8rB-C45Sc99AKkkRsPlboEkFOfHOYKqV3YQikaTj6Z9yfStOD2N4phpc4GIrTFtWz6rLXLskwYPfcg37d9cjp_a3irIk7rFYA0ZMnUuIbzFyncxkhIhhklesLtb2wdr0Z2UER8NY/s400/Dragonfly.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Dragonfly rotocraft could visit a
diversity of terrains event within a single region of Titan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From both its remote and surface
observations, the mission would be able to study a variety of geological
settings including sites with exposed water ice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: Dragonfly team/John Hopkins Applied
Physics Laboratory</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"></span></span>Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-69228820252970283112017-07-30T11:36:00.000-07:002017-07-30T11:36:08.497-07:00News from the past week (July 30, 2017)<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/casey-dreier/2017/0729-the-senate-makes-its-move-fy-2018-nasa-budget.html">The
Senate Makes Its Move: Nearly $200M less for NASA in 2018</a></span></b>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/about/staff/casey-dreier.html">Casey Dreier</a>
• July 28, 2017 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The proposed $19.5 billion would be
less than the agency received in 2017, and substantially less than that
proposed by the House for the coming year.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">China’s quest to become a space science superpower</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With major spaceflight milestones
behind it, China is working to build an international reputation for space
science.</span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Daniel Marín publishes in Spanish, but Google Translate (and
presumably other translators) do a good job of translating into English.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: #111111; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.35pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="http://danielmarin.naukas.com/2017/07/25/destiny-plus-una-sonda-japonesa-para-estudiar-el-asteroide-faeton/">Destiny
Plus, a Japanese probe to study the asteroid Phaeton</a></span></b></h1>
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<b><span style="color: #111111; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.35pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="http://danielmarin.naukas.com/2017/07/05/dart/">DART, the NASA probe that
will hit a nearby asteroid</a></span></b>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf6qX9kadvZDJFz6X4KDFfMRiOCnJiqcCbcrEFjqjroa3tPfnWCuoZHvdpqqD1bU6KVoNOkSG5TZxf2rmaJPKcUqtfXQUpSdcnrfuZqcAakSaeCXWI6M4drUXhV1Fo0mPDaFyerhyyq0c/s1600/phys.org.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="48" data-original-width="153" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf6qX9kadvZDJFz6X4KDFfMRiOCnJiqcCbcrEFjqjroa3tPfnWCuoZHvdpqqD1bU6KVoNOkSG5TZxf2rmaJPKcUqtfXQUpSdcnrfuZqcAakSaeCXWI6M4drUXhV1Fo0mPDaFyerhyyq0c/s1600/phys.org.jpg" /></a></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-07-juicethe-jupiter-icy-moons-explorer.html">Introducing
JUICE—the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer</a></span></u></b></div>
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Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-56141720216848287632017-07-20T09:25:00.001-07:002017-07-30T11:41:43.767-07:00New Approach for the Blog<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">When I started this blog almost a decade ago, there wasn't another site that regularly focused on future planetary exploration. That has since changed, especially with regular postings by Jason Davis at the Planetary Society. At the same time, since I have become a professor, my time is more constrained.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With these changes, I plan to make changes to this blog. First, I will do a weekly posting with links to good articles and blog posts on issues relevant to future planetary exploration. I intend for this to be similar to the excellent Ed's Up weekly collection of excellent news writing (you can subscribe at <a href="https://tinyletter.com/edyong209">https://tinyletter.com/edyong209</a>), except that I will post mine here rather than it being an email newsletter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I also plan to continue to write in-depth analyses about once a month (see the previous post on missions to Uranus and Neptune as an example). Right now, I'm working on a story about what we know about the missions proposed for the current New Frontiers competition. There's good information available on about half of them.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the weekly updates, I may also write short updates of my own. This week, easily the biggest news is the cancellation of Space X's Red Dragon lander. The company make many claims about this lander (see, for example, <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2016/06/red-dragon-and-planetary-exploration.html">here</a> and <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2011/08/red-dragon-to-mars.html">here</a>). I'm not surprised to see it cancelled. Developing a spacecraft that can land on rockets reliably is hard. NASA, which ultimately funds the development through its contracts with Space X, was skeptical about using this system to land astronauts. Without the terrestrial version, there isn't a Martian version. I recommend Eric Berger's story linked below for more background.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The first full summary of stories published on future planetary exploration will come next week. In the meantime, here's a link to three good stories from the past week.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2017/20170719-house-budget-orbiter.html">Congress gives NASA's planetary science division some love (and a Mars orbiter) </a></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/about/staff/jason-davis.html">Jason Davis</a>
• July 19, 2017
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The House of Representatives proposed $2.1 billion
for NASA's planetary science budget, which would be an all-time high.
Part of the increase would be used to start work on a new reconnaissance
and communications orbiter.</span><br />
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2017/20170714-bepicolombo-completes-testing.html">Back
to Mercury! Europe and Japan's BepiColombo mission moves closer to launch</a></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jason Davis • July 14, 2017</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Next year, a pair of probes head to
Mercury to answer outstanding questions about our innermost planet, as well as
the formation of the solar system. </span></div>
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<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHV3E2Ja1DsjQ-LTbIFKBC0zaOSjhoW1_RR0XaoqUOydF7CGNZx3TFmf6i8B-T6wOf1KydKBQHM7BMXipclbOcBqT2A_oZx3V54X2ZBphXToDdmgzgcVVgEHzYJ_ESovvfGdSzkGXxuRg/s1600/Ars+Technica.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="112" data-original-width="368" height="97" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHV3E2Ja1DsjQ-LTbIFKBC0zaOSjhoW1_RR0XaoqUOydF7CGNZx3TFmf6i8B-T6wOf1KydKBQHM7BMXipclbOcBqT2A_oZx3V54X2ZBphXToDdmgzgcVVgEHzYJ_ESovvfGdSzkGXxuRg/s320/Ars+Technica.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/07/spacex-appears-to-have-pulled-the-plug-on-its-red-dragon-plans/">SpaceX appears to have pulled the plug on its Red Dragon plans</a></span></span></b></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span></span><br />
<h2 itemprop="description">
</h2>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span></span><br />
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</span></span><div class="byline" itemprop="author creator" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
<a href="https://arstechnica.com/author/ericberger/" itemprop="url" rel="author"><span itemprop="name">Eric Berger</span></a>
- <time class="date" data-time="1500492044" datetime="2017-07-19T19:20:44+00:00">7/19/2017, 12:20 PM</time></span></span>
</div>
</section><br />
<figure>
</figure>
<h2>
</h2>
</div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-8110062384543358302017-06-24T10:05:00.001-07:002017-06-29T09:15:11.392-07:00How We Would Explore Uranus or Neptune<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">One fact dominates the planning for any mission to Uranus or
Neptune.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They lie far from the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reaching one of these worlds takes so long
that by the standards of almost any other mission, the spacecraft is already
old before it would begin its observations of its target world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Juno spacecraft took five years to reach
Jupiter and the Cassini spacecraft took almost seven to reach Saturn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A mission to orbit Uranus, by contrast, could
take twelve years just to reach its destination, with a launch in May 2031 and
arriving at Uranus in May 2043.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As a result, each of these worlds has been visited only once by the 1970s-vintage
Voyager 2 spacecraft that performed hectic observations during brief flybys in
the mid- and late-1980s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The paucity of
information on these two planets has left blank chapters in our understanding
of the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The planetary
science community wants to return with a spacecraft that stays for in-depth
observations and carries modern instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Toward that end, a NASA chartered team of scientists and engineers
<a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjU_5WH99bUAhVP-GMKHV24DxEQFgguMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lpi.usra.edu%2Ficegiants%2Fmission_study%2FFull-Report.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEOHDEfwBlpkTL-SYco_A-mSVzvZw">published a report</a> this month outline options for returning to these worlds.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipxMQz7JyR4iADkY30C42cMAQl_WlVs6QGcb1T_qQcPpECSja87wi0YBtSPhrXmrC7Rq-4r1JtdQ5x05jv4jywx-AnY08-6bb0xEwnryDdEeS2ZDP6_ahfAD7bAcGwpN2DFuOMBFLT6YQ/s1600/Uranus+Lawrence+Sromovsky%252C+University+of+Wisconsin-Madison%253B+W.W.+Keck+Observatory+PIA17306.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="1024" height="312" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipxMQz7JyR4iADkY30C42cMAQl_WlVs6QGcb1T_qQcPpECSja87wi0YBtSPhrXmrC7Rq-4r1JtdQ5x05jv4jywx-AnY08-6bb0xEwnryDdEeS2ZDP6_ahfAD7bAcGwpN2DFuOMBFLT6YQ/s400/Uranus+Lawrence+Sromovsky%252C+University+of+Wisconsin-Madison%253B+W.W.+Keck+Observatory+PIA17306.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Uranus. Credit: Lawrence Sromovsky, University of Wisconsin-Madison/W.W. Keck Observatory</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Uranus and Neptune are a
distinct class of planets in the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The gas giants Jupiter and Saturn are primarily composed of hydrogen and
helium.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ice giants Uranus and
Neptune, by contrast, are believed to have formed further from the sun where
ices would have been more common.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a
result, these are water worlds (although the water is under tremendous pressure
and believed to be in an ionic state and mixed with ammonia and methane).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Above the water are atmospheres of hydrogen
and helium and below rocky cores.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, the report notes that with our current knowledge, Uranus and
Neptune, “challenge our understanding of planetary formation, evolution and
physics.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We also have learned that
planets of their size are a common class of worlds orbiting other stars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We need to return to
these worlds to both understand our own and other planetary systems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In one way, exploring the solar system is like building medieval
cathedrals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is a process that takes
generations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the plans laid out in
the report come to fruition, almost six decades will pass between the Voyager 2
flybys of these worlds and their next visit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Approximately a quarter century will pass from today to arrival.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not unusual.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nearly a quarter century will also pass
between the first serious discussions I’m aware of for a dedicated mission to
Europa and the expected arrival of the Europa Clipper spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now is the time to begin serious planning to
take advantage of the good flight opportunities around 2030.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The goal of the report is to provide the planetary community a range
of options it can use when they consider goals for planetary exploration in the
2020’s and early 2030’s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That process,
called the Decadal Survey, looks across the solar system and recommends a
balance of missions to address top scientific questions within the expected
budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last Survey, covering 2013
to 2022, ranked a mission to Uranus as the third priority after a rover to
cache Martian samples and a mission to explore the habitability of Europa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Available funding allowed development of
those latter two missions to begin this decade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The possible start of work on a mission to Uranus was deferred to the 2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With that delay, the
changing alignment of the planets opens up the alternative to explore Neptune
instead of Uranus.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The first use of the
report will be by a committee conducting a mid-term assessment of the current
Decadal Survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Dwayne Day,
the study director of the National Academies' mid-term assessment, the review
committee has already been briefed about the ice giants study and has also
heard from the Outer Planets Assessment Group about future outer planets
missions. Dr. Day was involved in running previous the planetary Decadal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He notes that one of the challenges that
group faced was that few planetary mission studies had been
done prior to the last Decadal Survey, which limited the options the survey
members had when they started.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That
created a crush during the study to develop new mission concepts
and conduct mission evaluations while the survey was underway. Having
the ice giants study in hand prior to the development of the
next Decadal </span><wbr></wbr><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Survey is a real asset. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The report is a menu of options: perform a flyby only (not
recommended), orbit Uranus or Neptune or both (each have unique characteristics), possibly
deliver a probe that would enter the atmosphere (recommended), and carry 3, 7,
or 13 (recommended) orbiter instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There’s also a choice of launch vehicles.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With all these options, it can be difficult to answer what was my basic
question in reading the report: When we return, how will we explore whichever
world is prioritized in the next Decadal Survey?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this post, I take one set of options and
look at that question.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For anyone
reading the report, this generally follows Option 5 for a Uranus orbiter but
with seven instead of three orbiter instruments listed for this option.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I also look at how the goals would change if Neptune were selected
instead.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I recommend <a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2017/20170621-revisiting-ice-giants.html">Jason Davis' post on the Planetary Society's blog</a> for additional background on the scientific reasons for returning to these worlds.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfIJtk0RGT5JV_8wd_tvC-kIUZCLc4eSZEgv9jvRZUgksbFt86FBG5gkTqC0g2vzFTKwuYp3cDGWUCQIFTmscnV6l_OTc76MlItVCwX2dcrUCWS_saqt8GyJ9LazFVJD3Wg6pSKcHKnR0/s1600/Mission+options.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="643" data-original-width="901" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfIJtk0RGT5JV_8wd_tvC-kIUZCLc4eSZEgv9jvRZUgksbFt86FBG5gkTqC0g2vzFTKwuYp3cDGWUCQIFTmscnV6l_OTc76MlItVCwX2dcrUCWS_saqt8GyJ9LazFVJD3Wg6pSKcHKnR0/s400/Mission+options.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Summary of several of the mission options examined by the ice giants study team. Click on the image for a larger view. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Transit, Arrival, and Orbit</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For the most part, the cruise to Uranus would have the spacecraft in
quiet mode with periodic status checks with home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Venus and Earth encounters <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">en route</i> could provide opportunities to
check out the instruments and observation modes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many of the trajectories include a flyby of
Jupiter that could present opportunities for new science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The spacecraft would carry a new class of
instrument, a Doppler imager (more on this later), that could extend our
knowledge of the planet’s interior following the Juno mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The report doesn’t discuss opportunities for
Jupiter science, but given the extensive observations by the Cassini and New
Horizons spacecraft as they flew by Jupiter, an ice giant mission is likely to
do so, too.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Long range observations of Uranus would begin 85 days before arrival,
and an atmospheric probe would be released 25 days after that.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The hours around arrival would be crowded
with relay of the data from the atmospheric probe, the orbital insertion burn,
and a pass so close to the planet that the spacecraft skims the tenuous upper
fringe of the atmosphere.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Once in orbit, the spacecraft would spend two plus years studying the
Uranus system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each standard science
orbit would take approximately 50 days.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During
distant portions of the orbits (greater than 20 Uranus radii), the narrow angle
camera would observe the entire planet and the ring system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Closer in, the spacecraft divides its time
between high resolution observations of the clouds, rings, moons and the magnetosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The example tour presented in the report
would include two close flybys of the moon Titania and three each for Oberon,
Umbrial, Miranda, and Ariel.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The report
notes that at the end of the mission, the orbiter might perform a series of
orbits that has it, as the Cassini spacecraft is doing at the end of its Saturn
mission, fly between the inner ring and the top of the atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If done, these orbits would allow close up
gravity and magnetic field measurements.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOeY0GQtRlCsvMMqv_MDINpQqijJFc2HWLW9Uv7MKIqg0WEPbTHYdiKePI-OvBxdPIbTOqCVWAn-QLetAB7si-zi8iDMbHQB_EgQNbeTskKQykXM-pNOrmgv4BheX6YHgVHYw8vVD47D4/s1600/Uranus+orbital+tour.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="499" data-original-width="956" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOeY0GQtRlCsvMMqv_MDINpQqijJFc2HWLW9Uv7MKIqg0WEPbTHYdiKePI-OvBxdPIbTOqCVWAn-QLetAB7si-zi8iDMbHQB_EgQNbeTskKQykXM-pNOrmgv4BheX6YHgVHYw8vVD47D4/s400/Uranus+orbital+tour.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Example orbital tour at Uranus that would provide multiple flybys of the major moons and close examination of the rings and atmsophere. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Science</span></div>
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</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The report lists twelve science goals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Depending on the instrument compliment, the full range of the Uranus
system could be explored: the interior of the planet, the dynamics of the
atmosphere, the many minor and five large moons, the ring system, and the
magnetosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To keep this post to a
readable length, I’ll focus on just the top two – determine Uranus’ composition
and interior structure – and the examination of the major moons to determine
which if any might be ocean worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We now understand that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune migrated
following their formation to eventually reach their present orbits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Understanding the location and manner of the
formation of an ice giant would provide missing puzzle pieces to understanding
the history of the earliest outer solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The goal is to measure the precise ratios of key elements and isotopes in
the atmosphere because they act as fingerprints identifying the actual
circumstances of planetary birth and evolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Addressing these questions would be the job of the atmospheric
probe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During its descent through the
upper atmosphere to a depth where atmospheric pressure equals at least ten
times the sea level pressure on Earth, its mass spectrometer would measure the
composition of the gasses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Additional
instruments would measure temperature, pressure, density to provide context
(and contribute to understanding the planet’s weather).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If space within the probe and budgets permit,
this probe could carry additional instruments such as an instrument to detect
cloud layers.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0fR0-QBYRg5hWbu0Q0DZ2DgE479vSkXNiNnazxzWZ_2Dda4mBPq8ayKh-Arc7NxT5fAINxKV967DanHXgdhx4T1_93BzkKn7ULnd9tZrj_8czM1_Z6sTRqwMRPG20-Smu3ZAmTN8fXAc/s1600/Giant+planet+interiors.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="517" data-original-width="890" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0fR0-QBYRg5hWbu0Q0DZ2DgE479vSkXNiNnazxzWZ_2Dda4mBPq8ayKh-Arc7NxT5fAINxKV967DanHXgdhx4T1_93BzkKn7ULnd9tZrj_8czM1_Z6sTRqwMRPG20-Smu3ZAmTN8fXAc/s400/Giant+planet+interiors.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Current understanding of the interior structure of the gas and ice giant planets. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report. </span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As with the ice giant’s formation, our understanding of their interior structure
is poor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The current model has an outer
gaseous atmosphere composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, a large inner
ocean composed primarily of ionic water, and a rocky core.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The existing data from the Voyager 2 flybys,
however, is ambiguous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The primary
instrument to address this question on a new mission would be one that has
never flown on a planetary spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
Doppler imager would look for oscillations at the top of the atmosphere caused
by motions at a range of depths within the atmosphere and ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Just as seismic waves in rocky worlds reveal
their interior structure, these atmospheric motions would reveal the interior structures of
gas and ice giants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>The
same method is used to study the interior of the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The report notes that these measurements hold
the promise to revolutionize the study of outer planet interiors over the
current methods that use planets’ gravity fields to study interiors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Measurements during a Jupiter flyby would be
as novel as those at Uranus or Neptune.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The measurements, however, are data hungry, requiring images be taken as
frequently as every two seconds during the approach to the planet. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB5KsofFPYd_idXaCJ0ehSXCSgwQTa3c2BCVAmRd9WVHnSZnxCrILZNJ9iZWPg-rrU_XK3_K4LtN8VYn4K5dMRCRnV-ef94bnsK2V36WvgJ5xLWlesW53QZgWKdaiIc7zv-ZlDVfmj4bg/s1600/Uranus+major+moons.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="1076" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB5KsofFPYd_idXaCJ0ehSXCSgwQTa3c2BCVAmRd9WVHnSZnxCrILZNJ9iZWPg-rrU_XK3_K4LtN8VYn4K5dMRCRnV-ef94bnsK2V36WvgJ5xLWlesW53QZgWKdaiIc7zv-ZlDVfmj4bg/s400/Uranus+major+moons.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Voyager 2 images of the five larger moons of Uranus. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The five major moons of Uranus fall within the same size range as
Saturn’s medium sized moons such as Enceladus, Mimas, and Dione.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Voyager 2’s low resolution (except for the
inner most of these moons, Miranda) observations revealed that all five show
signs of varying degrees of past resurfacing from cryovolcanism and tectonic
activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The two innermost, Miranda and
Ariel appear to have extensive resurfacing while the two outermost, Titania and
Oberon, are large enough that they may have liquid oceans between their outer
icy shells and inner rocky core.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titania
has comparatively few large craters, suggesting a younger surface, than the
more cratered Oberon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titania also has a
series of surface ridges similar to those on Europa’s surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The middle of these moons, Umbriel, appears
to have the least altered and most battered surface.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">During the satellite tour, the orbiter’s camera would image their
surfaces to allow scientists to reconstruct their past geologic history.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the craft carries more than just the
minimal core instrument complement, imaging spectrometers would be used to
measure the surface composition, which likely includes material erupted from
the interior.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The magnetometer would be
used to search for induced magnetic fields at the moons that would strongly suggest a
present interior liquid ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(This is
how the Galileo spacecraft all but confirmed the existence of Europa’s ocean.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Radio tracking of the spacecraft’s signal
would be used to measure the sizes of the icy shells, any ocean, and the rocky
cores.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The wide range of sizes (from
Miranda’s 472 kilometer diameter to Titania’s 1577 kilometer diameter) and
geologic variety makes the Uranus system a laboratory for understanding how
systems of moons formed and evolved and their potential for providing habitats
for life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">If Neptune Instead of Uranus</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The report describes two options for missions that target Neptune
instead of or in combination with Uranus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Because Neptune lies further from the sun, and orbiter and probe mission
would require a larger and more expensive launch vehicle than the Uranus
mission plus a solar electric propulsion stage to provide an additional
velocity boost beyond what the launch vehicle and the gravity assists from Earth
and Jupiter can provide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Total flight
time to Neptune with this combination would take thirteen years, one more than
to Uranus without the solar electric propulsion stage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNkVuM-qK9JFRBfGSpTEWqlaSV7h71byFvf5acxRW5gBA52I6JPD4GfEpYWjMGM5CjI9QRh9h3annOSkctbk7v-G-jzX-b2Zk_ntGy1TG_AmReo4vnxmdl_ijVeiegEidkKLQ98uFNL0Y/s1600/Triton+NASA%253BJPL+PIA01536.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1350" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNkVuM-qK9JFRBfGSpTEWqlaSV7h71byFvf5acxRW5gBA52I6JPD4GfEpYWjMGM5CjI9QRh9h3annOSkctbk7v-G-jzX-b2Zk_ntGy1TG_AmReo4vnxmdl_ijVeiegEidkKLQ98uFNL0Y/s320/Triton+NASA%253BJPL+PIA01536.jpg" width="270" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Voyager 2 image of Neptune's moon Tritan. Credit: JPL/NASA</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For this mission, the science goals for studying the planet, its rings,
and minor moons are essentially the same as for Uranus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The key difference is that Neptune possesses
one extremely large moon, Triton, that is likely a sister world to Pluto that
was captured from the Kuiper belt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Triton has a thin atmosphere, erupting (at least at the time of the
Voyager flyby) geysers, and possibly an ocean beneath the ice shell.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This moon would be a focus of the orbital
mission with 36 encounters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The science
goals would be similar to those for the larger Uranus moons with the addition
of studying the composition of the atmosphere with an ultraviolet spectrometer
as was done by the New Horizon’s craft at Pluto.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The report also briefly discusses the possibility of sending an orbiter
to Uranus and a flyby spacecraft to Neptune.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For this option one orbiter would conduct the in-depth studies the
committee felt were essential while the flyby craft would expand the studies to
the second ice giant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the two
craft would carry an atmospheric probe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
this case, the Neptune flyby would likely be similar to a Uranus flyby
considered by not recommended in the report.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Neptune flyby craft would conduct approach science as described for
the Uranus orbiter above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The craft
would then likely conduct a close flyby of Triton to provide single close up
examination of it before heading into the deep outer solar system and possibly
into interstellar space. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Getting There </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It’s possible to traverse the realm of the ice giants quickly – the New
Horizons spacecraft reached even more distant Pluto in just under a
decade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, that spacecraft was
intentionally kept as light as possible to allow a high velocity launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While New Horizon’s was a bantam-weight
scout, scientists want a highly capable orbiter for what likely would be a
once-in-several-generations mission to orbit one of these worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed ice giant orbiters would be
approximately 2000 kg without fuel, or about five times the mass of the New
Horizon’s spacecraft but about the same as the Cassini Saturn orbiter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Even if the launch vehicle existed to directly fling the heavier ice
giant orbiter to its destination, a New Horizon style mad dash wouldn’t be
possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When it reached Pluto, that spacecraft
was going so fast that it would have been impractical to carry enough fuel to
insert itself into orbit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission design for an ice giant mission becomes
a trade off between speed and the mass of the fuel needed to brake from that
velocity into orbit. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using the a
mid-range commercial launch vehicle such as the Atlas V, a reasonable balance
results in the twelve-year flight listed above. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Using a more expensive Delta IV Heavy, a year to a year and half can be
cut from the transit time. If an SLS booster is available with its greater
launch ability, the flight time can be cut by four years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adding a solar electric propulsion unit to
provide a boost in flight could cut the flight time a year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any combination of these latter options comes
with the trade off of a higher, and possibly much higher, overall mission cost.
(When it becomes available, the Falcon Heavy will provide an additional
option.)</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNe_xFNzk6CzIbxFWTgSaA14veEAxhcsp5aIQs3LhsjAYP_VdoXy4l_W0lZXaNxJx5mvpd9xd6Dxw0Z_oH5JEa4owyPSWX8x8W7jQlW0MW81-EfOUWJIdl2JQhucZp6ROumuTf6oD8OAQ/s1600/Uranus+interplanetary+trajectory.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="533" data-original-width="690" height="308" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNe_xFNzk6CzIbxFWTgSaA14veEAxhcsp5aIQs3LhsjAYP_VdoXy4l_W0lZXaNxJx5mvpd9xd6Dxw0Z_oH5JEa4owyPSWX8x8W7jQlW0MW81-EfOUWJIdl2JQhucZp6ROumuTf6oD8OAQ/s400/Uranus+interplanetary+trajectory.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Example trajectory for a mission to orbit Uranus (Option 5 from the report). Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Another challenge for exploring these worlds is that the sun is too
faint for solar power so radioisotope power supplies would be required.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Over time, the components of these supplies
degrade, reducing power to the spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(The radioisotopes also decay, but that loss is slower.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An enabling technology for these missions is
an enhancement already under development that boosts power delivery late in a
mission’s life by incorporating longer-lived components.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(For those of you who follow these
technologies, this is the enhanced Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermal
Generator, or eMMRTG).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed designs would carry either four
or five eMMRTGs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The Curiosity rover,
by comparison, carries just one of the current generation MMRTGs.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the projected end of these missions, the
combined output from the multiple eMMRTGs will be less than either four or five
100 Watt light bulbs, depending on the number carried.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT0rt7q_MF1AMqv586PYi1sQSRNyQ0BCVyAxBi1hh7TTs3sjATrbVsQO7h5rsfrms4iUXXlQa5-L09m4qiN_9LwImazNjJ38v3AkJoCcDiTmBw-qJjErlorx30ddMpqlbjasSzfH4lvec/s1600/Orbiter+conceptual+design.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="442" data-original-width="947" height="186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT0rt7q_MF1AMqv586PYi1sQSRNyQ0BCVyAxBi1hh7TTs3sjATrbVsQO7h5rsfrms4iUXXlQa5-L09m4qiN_9LwImazNjJ38v3AkJoCcDiTmBw-qJjErlorx30ddMpqlbjasSzfH4lvec/s400/Orbiter+conceptual+design.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKoeG_D5qHbiCq8pI0XxJ_abZPjhDqVgPr5cjaCkWPL0iOfO8uIh0BrmBZ3UNU7rU525xQqOwaasKSGKvp5uwczNZQopklFhL_VFumNWsuy4mo0Ffu_3Ro0SQS7zzvxj5gI9gPT5Z_pu4/s1600/ScreenHunter_105+Jun.+24+08.19.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="470" data-original-width="746" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKoeG_D5qHbiCq8pI0XxJ_abZPjhDqVgPr5cjaCkWPL0iOfO8uIh0BrmBZ3UNU7rU525xQqOwaasKSGKvp5uwczNZQopklFhL_VFumNWsuy4mo0Ffu_3Ro0SQS7zzvxj5gI9gPT5Z_pu4/s320/ScreenHunter_105+Jun.+24+08.19.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Conceptual design for a Uranus orbiter and atmospheric probe. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The report notes that the expected power will require turning
instruments on and off because not all can operate at the same time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That act stresses the electrical components
such as solder joints.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instruments for
missions to Uranus or Neptune may, the report notes, may require additional
levels of redundancy be built in to ensure they can operate for the full length
of the missions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Another challenge imposed by distance is returning the data collected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At Uranus, the data rate would be
approximately 0.37 to 0.52 gigabits per day, or approximately one-fifth to
one-seventh the rate planned for the Europa Clipper mission which will operate
at the much closer Jovian system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
report notes that arbitration for the available data bandwidth between the
different scientific investigations will be “complex.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Next Steps</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As discussed in the introduction to this post, planning missions for
the outer solar system is a long game.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
key decision will come in the rankings of priorities of missions in the next
Decadal Survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, assuming a high
ranking, the size of NASA’s planetary science budget will determine its
capabilities, and whether just one or two of these worlds will be explored.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A mission to either of these worlds would
have similar costs – ranging from around $2 billion to $2.3 billion depending on
options – to other large planetary missions such as NASA’s Curiosity rover.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgts4Lo0oTFCfGECGuQ-tRgg-0RRAMLanaYrM3wR7Q95kC7DmUaOeFzNro7BeY4Br1oiaqzcEdt8Wm7PXSLeoTWNTygae-coLP0NbYKSLf1VUsh_3gsUNWAMOVEkUqb-LuSYO0ZOORnLKk/s1600/Cost-science+return.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="565" data-original-width="811" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgts4Lo0oTFCfGECGuQ-tRgg-0RRAMLanaYrM3wR7Q95kC7DmUaOeFzNro7BeY4Br1oiaqzcEdt8Wm7PXSLeoTWNTygae-coLP0NbYKSLf1VUsh_3gsUNWAMOVEkUqb-LuSYO0ZOORnLKk/s400/Cost-science+return.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The estimated relative science benefit (vertical axis) versus estimated cost of different mission options using the minimum three instrument payload recommended for the flyby or orbiter spacecraft. The study team concluded that the limited science from a flyby mission would not be worth the cost savings from the much more capable orbiter mission. Sending missions to both planets was judged to approximately double the science return but at substantially higher costs. Credit: Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">While the report focuses on a US-only mission, the study was done with
the hope that exploring these worlds could be done as an international project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scientists in Europe have proposed their own
missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The report recommends a
further study to explore the options for collaborative missions to these
worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Working together, a mission
becomes more affordable to both agencies and the chances for a more capable
mission, or even missions to both worlds, seems more likely.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other space agencies might also be
interested.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The case for exploring these
worlds is compelling, and I am optimistic that we will.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span>Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-30617785753183858602017-05-23T23:27:00.000-07:002017-05-23T23:27:58.698-07:00A Great Proposed Budget for Planetary Science<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Trump administration has released its first full budget proposal
for the federal government, including NASA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While many science programs throughout many agencies face recommended
cuts (see these analyses by the journals <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/05/what-s-trump-s-2018-budget-request-science">Science</a>
and <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/trump-budget-would-slash-science-programmes-across-government-1.22036">Nature</a>),
NASA’s science programs generally fared well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Planetary Science program fares particularly well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several satellite missions and research
programs in the Earth Sciences program that focus on climate change and carbon
monitoring, by contrast, face termination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>NASA’s Astrophysics (including the James Webb Space Telescope) and
Heliophysics programs are projected to have flat budgets into the future.</span></div>
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" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Past and proposed spending for NASA science programs. The Planetary Science program is the only program proposed to receive a major increase.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For fans of planetary exploration, I think it’s time to pop the
champagne.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed budget takes the
NASA program to new spending heights.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While much of the proposed Trump budget seems likely to get mauled by
Congress, the latter’s strong support for the planetary program implies that
this program’s proposed increase may become reality.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The budget documents provide two sets of numbers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first, and most important, are specific
requested amounts for Congress to approve for the Fiscal Year 2018, which
starts October 1, 2017.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second set
of numbers are projected notional budgets for FY19 to FY22.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This provide guidance for future years and is
important because NASA’s managers cannot plan programs that aren’t projected to
be funded in the out years.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" height="268" 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" 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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Past and proposed budgets for the planetary science programs that develop and operate missions. It is normal for budget lines to wax and wane as the development of individual missions ramp up their spending leading to launch followed by a ramp down as another program's missions approaches peak funding. In the planning period, Mars program funding ramps down as the 2020 rover development completes followed by an increase to support a follow on mission. The Discovery program ramps up to support development of the Lucy and Psyche missions with the start of a second ramp for a follow on mission. The New Frontiers program ramps down following the launch of the OSIRIS-REx mission followed by a ramp up for a new mission. The Outer Planets and Ocean Worlds program, which is dominated by spending to develop the Europa Clipper mission is project to have erratic swings not explained in the budget documents.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here are some of the highlights of the proposed Planetary Science
budget:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Every single mission in flight that is expected to still be operating
next year (rest in peace Cassini and Dawn) is funded for the next year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Four missions are projected to remain funded
for a further five years: the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter, the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return spacecraft, and
the Curiosity rover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Juno mission is
projected to be funded through 2020, which would allow the mission to complete most
of its originally planned orbits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
New Horizon mission is funded through its encounter with the small Kuiper Belt
object, 2014 MU69 in 2019.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the
Opportunity rover is forecasted to be funded only through 2018 and the Mars
Odyssey Orbiter through 2019.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The budget
documents don’t give an explanation for the limited funding for these two
missions; perhaps this is an expectation that these aged craft will not live
forever.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">All mission currently in development are funded including the Mars 2020
rover, the Europa Clipper mission, and three Discovery missions: the InSight
Mars geophysics station and the Lucy and Psyche asteroid missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Funding is projected to develop the next New
Frontiers mission to be selected in late 2018 or 2019 and launched in the
mid-2020s.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The projected budget shows funding for NASA to select and begin development
of the next Discovery mission after the Lucy and Psyche missions are
launched.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given the timing of the
selection in the early 2020s, launch would likely be in the mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The budget request also forecast the start of
development of a Mars mission that seems likely to launch in the
mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the budget document is
silent on the nature of this mission, NASA has said that it would like to fly a
new orbiter to replace the venerable Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If you want to look for disappointing news in the proposed planetary
budget, I found two.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The document projects
a funding ramp for the Europa Clipper mission that would enable a launch in the
mid- to late-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is in direct
conflict with Congress’ stated goal that the mission should launch by 2022.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The requested funding for FY18 would support
the 2022 launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The key will be whether
funding on follow on years is greater than that projected in the budget
document.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, the projected
spending in FY19 is $303 million versus $580 million needed to launch in 2022.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The other potentially disappointing news is that the budget request
explicitly rules out starting development of the congressionally mandated
Europa lander, which would follow the Europa Clipper mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">To meet Congress’ stated goals for the Europa Clipper and lander
missions, the planetary science budget would need to grow substantially
starting in fiscal year 2019, or other missions within this budget would have
to be cut.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A look at the larger federal budget situation does suggest a problem
with the rosy picture for planetary exploration in this budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are at least three camps in Washington
DC with vastly different views on what the federal budget should look like: the
Trump administration, Congressional Republicans (who may have fractured views
of their own), and Congressional Democrats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The overall Trump federal budget proposes radical changes to spending
for many agencies (NASA among the few excluded).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It seems likely that resolving these
differences may extend well into 2018 or perhaps never.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Resolving much smaller differences for the
FY17 budget occurred eight months after the start of the fiscal year.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The standard way to deal with impasses is to
pass a continuing resolution that extends the previous year’s funding into the
next for a period of time (and sometimes the entire year).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several missions in development – the Mars
2020 rover, Europa Clipper, and Lucy asteroid mission – require large increases
in their budgets next year to stay on track.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Long-lasting continuing resolutions could cause these missions to miss
their launch dates, raising the overall costs of the missions.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The budget document did have one surprising piece of potential
news.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Psyche asteroid orbiter
mission has been slated to launch in 2023 and arrive at its metallic namesake
in 2030.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission’s websites state
these dates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the budget document
states that the mission will launch in 2022 and arrive at its destination in
2025.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A typo or more aggressive funding
allowing an earlier launch and arrival?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-10230674961688370162017-01-29T15:17:00.001-08:002017-01-29T15:17:10.237-08:00Explorer of Enceladus and Titan<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
search for another world with life in our solar system has arguably become the
most powerful theme in planetary exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While microbial life – the most likely form of life elsewhere in the
solar system – itself is likely to be hard to prove with a unified series of
past, current, and planned missions to Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>NASA is developing an orbiter to investigate the habitability of Europa
and studying a follow on lander to directly search for life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And for the third time in less than a decade,
scientists have proposed a multiple-flyby mission to explore the habitability
of Saturn’s ocean moons Titan and Enceladus.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
latest proposal, led by European scientists, is called Explorer of Enceladus and
Titan (E<sup>2</sup>T).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It builds on the
experience gained from two less ambitious previous proposals, led by American
scientists, the Journey to Enceladus (JET) in 2010 and the Enceladus Life
Finder (ELF) in 2014.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I
met the principle investigator for the E<sup>2</sup>T proposal, Giuseppe Mitri
with the University of Nantes, at a conference in December.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We discussed his team’s proposal and he has
subsequently provided me we a comprehensive look at the goals and the mission
implementation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an email to me, he
explained the motivation for the mission: “</span>Enceladus and Titan are two
unique worlds in the Solar System not only in terms of their geology and
evolution but also for their habitability. Flyby missions such as E2T provide
an unprecedented opportunity to explore in detail, surpassing that of Cassini,
two worlds in a single relatively low cost mission”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn3cp9XVwBCSo0dc-Qde1ppkXbEyCNrySkZTcxw63XKAefE7LPqeBO_xTylR4lc-C2GD8KswkJ3W0aJMF49GyoPuxF-dn9VIiO6LpXVth1JODmS8XhkBAl9qi1F3eIOEghoVp3b8FKOXY/s1600/E2T.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn3cp9XVwBCSo0dc-Qde1ppkXbEyCNrySkZTcxw63XKAefE7LPqeBO_xTylR4lc-C2GD8KswkJ3W0aJMF49GyoPuxF-dn9VIiO6LpXVth1JODmS8XhkBAl9qi1F3eIOEghoVp3b8FKOXY/s400/E2T.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Credit: Guiseppe Mitri and the Explorer of Enceladus and Titan team</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">For scientists interested in habitability and
life, Titan and Enceladus are obvious targets for exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Cassini spacecraft, which is nearing the
end of its thirteen year exploration of the Saturn system, discovered that both
worlds have salty water oceans beneath icy crusts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titan also has a rich stew of organic molecules
in its atmosphere that are deposited on its surface and into its methane-ethane
surface seas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Enceladus conveniently has
plumes jetting samples of its ocean into space. Within the plumes, Cassini’s
instruments have found organic molecules and trace minerals suggestive of
hydrothermal water-rock interactions that could provide a habitat for microbes.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The three proposed missions to Enceladus and
Titan would employ relatively simple spacecraft with just two to three
instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They stand in contrast to
NASA’s planned mission to explore the habitability of Europa, another ocean
world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Europa mission will bristle
with nine instruments, several of which will produce floods of data that
require a high-powered communications system to return the data to Earth.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A key difference between the Europa and the
Saturn moons missions is the prior history of exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Europa was explored by the Galileo spacecraft
built with 1970s technology that had a crippled communications system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, NASA’s new Europa mission must conduct
its own comprehensive global study of this world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At Saturn, this initial investigation of
Enceladus and Titan has been conducted by the highly capable Cassini spacecraft
built with 1990s technology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a
result, the next mission to these moons can focus on a few specific questions answerable
with two to three instruments.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">(For those of you who recall that the Galileo
spacecraft explored Jupiter’s system in the 1990s, the completed spacecraft sat
on the ground for almost a decade due to launch delays.)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Two of the E<sup>2</sup>T spacecraft’s instrument
would focus on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in situ</i> composition
measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At Enceladus, the spacecraft
can fly through the plumes and directly taste the ocean’s contents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At Titan, complex organic molecules are
carried to the outermost fringes of the atmosphere where the spacecraft can
sample the atmosphere’s chemistry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T spacecraft’s two mass
spectrometers would sample material during each passage and determine their
composition by “weighing” their constituent molecules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The distribution of the weights of the
different molecules can be interpreted to determine the composition of the
original material.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The spacecraft’s ion
and neutral gas mass spectrometer would determine the composition of gasses
while the Enceladus Icy Jet Analyzer would determine the composition of ice,
salt, and dust particles in Enceladus’ plumes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The two mass spectrometers will measure the nature of the organic
chemicals, the pattern of carbon isotopes, the relative abundances of noble
gases, and search for amino acids and abnormal isotope rations in organic
molecules that suggest a biological origin.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Cassini spacecraft carried versions of
both these instruments, but the E<sup>2</sup>T instruments would have a forty
to fifty times improvement in resolution (the ability to distinguish similar
molecules) and sensitivity (the ability to measure minute amounts of a
substance) over their predecessors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(NASA’s Europa mission would carry similar instruments to E<sup>2</sup>T’s
as will Europe’s JUICE mission to Jupiter and its moon Ganymede).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T team has several key
questions that the two mass spectrometers would address.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Enceladus, are the materials in the plume
most likely from its formation or from current geological or biological
processes?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What does the composition reveal about the
nature of the liquid reservoir (currently believed to be a global ocean beneath
an icy cap) and its potential as a habitat for life?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Titan, what are the sources of its
volatiles and how they have been subsequently processed?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Does the atmospheric composition suggest that
the current atmosphere is refreshed by material reaching the surface from the
deep water ocean? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T’s spacecraft’s third
instrument would image Titan’s surface and the sources of Enceladus’ plumes
(the so called ‘tiger stripes’) in the near- and short-wave infrared.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The instrument’s name spells out TIGER for
the Titan Imaging and Geology, Enceladus Reconnaissance camera.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titan
is perpetually shrouded in atmospheric haze, hiding the surface from cameras
that image in most wavelengths.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
spectral windows at 1.3, 2, and 5 microns allow a camera to image the surface
at several times finer resolution than a similar instrument on the Cassini
spacecraft (and also at better resolution than Cassini’s radar images).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The images returned by the camera will
address several key questions such as: To what degree are sediments produced
and transported by fluvial and aeolian processes?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How have the rivers and seas of liquid methane
and ethane modified the surface?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How
does the composition of the surface, revealed by the three ‘colors’ of the
spectral bands, vary?</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">If the E<sup>2</sup>T mission is selected as a
finalist in ESA’s medium class competition, the team will investigate whether a
radio science experiment to study the two moons’ gravitational field could be
added.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If it is, this experiment will
investigate the thickness and mechanical properties of the ice shell at
Enceladus’ southern pole where the plumes originate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The gravity measurements would also be used
to investigate Titan’s ice shell and the properties of its internal ocean.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjucxtHPN5Tg7nxGFTxSenmcMAiVc4sjEjVrPFGhvel_iXZ_i2AD33F9x-HJ6XuGbJ9Q92TlQq4LRNkQL4ILR_kI_wj74cDlyZG_67dkWOlg1dJy0TqfggCpHGSd5V8ebq5HKjzgGu6n7U/s1600/JET.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjucxtHPN5Tg7nxGFTxSenmcMAiVc4sjEjVrPFGhvel_iXZ_i2AD33F9x-HJ6XuGbJ9Q92TlQq4LRNkQL4ILR_kI_wj74cDlyZG_67dkWOlg1dJy0TqfggCpHGSd5V8ebq5HKjzgGu6n7U/s400/JET.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">E<sup>2</sup>T team hasn't release a
description of its planned imaging coverage of Titan's surface or flights through the plumes of Enceladus. However, the similar JET proposal would have imaged large portions of Titan's surface at several times the resolution of Cassini's instruments and flown through the plumes at different altitudes. Credit: JPL/Caltech</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
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<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.4pt;" valign="top" width="54">
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">JET</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ELF</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">E<sup>2</sup>T</span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Neutral
and ion mass spectrometer</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.4pt;" valign="top" width="54">
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Particulate
mass spectrometer</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.4pt;" valign="top" width="54">
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<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Infrared
camera</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.4pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
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<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">X</span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>Comparison
of instruments proposed for the three proposed Saturn orbiters that would
perform multiple flybys of Enceladus and Titan.<span>
</span>The E<sup>2</sup>T team is proposing a more ambitious mission than did
the preceding teams.</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">If Titan and Enceladus are obvious targets for
further exploration, what is surprising about E<sup>2</sup>T and its
predecessor proposals is that they were put forward for the lowest-cost class
of missions flown by the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA to explore the
planets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Both ESA and NASA have mission categories for similarly
priced low cost planetary exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For the Europeans, this is the Medium class mission program where
missions can be proposed for planetary science, astrophysics, or
heliophysics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the Americans, this is
the Discovery program that is dedicated to the exploration of the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These programs cap the cost for costs
directly managed by the mission’s principle investigator at €550 million for
ESA and $450M for NASA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(A Euro spent in
Europe and a dollar spent in the United States have similar purchasing
power.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the ESA missions, the cap must
cover the spacecraft, mission operations, and launch but doesn’t include the
costs of instruments, science teams, or data analysis, which are paid for
separately by individual nations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
NASA missions, the cap must cover the spacecraft, instruments and the science
team (except those contributed by foreign nations) but doesn’t include launch
or mission operations, which are paid for separately by NASA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The difference in the way instrument costs
are accounted for by ESA and NASA explains why European mission proposals
typically include more instruments than similar American proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For European missions, instruments are off
the PI’s budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>US proposers like to
include foreign instruments paid for by their governments because they again
are off the PI budget.)</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Once all costs are added up, these missions typically
cost somewhere in the neighborhood of 600 to 700 million Euros or dollars. However,
this is still only about 60% of the cost of the cheapest outer planets mission
to date, the Juno Jupiter orbiter, at $1.1 billion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The Juno spacecraft has to survive Jupiter’s
intense radiation levels, which are absent at Saturn, accounting for a portion
of its greater costs.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Developing a winning proposal for a mission to
Saturn for less than €700 million is challenging.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Per the abstract for an upcoming conference,
the JET and ELF missions “were rejected [by NASA] for too-high cost risk.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T proposal, however,
incorporates the lessons learned from those earlier proposals, and scientists from
the earlier efforts are members of the E<sup>2</sup>T team.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We aren’t privy to all the details of how the
E<sup>2</sup>T team proposes to fit within the budget cap.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This information is a key part of the proposal’s
competitive edge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The presentation on
the mission supplied to me by Dr. Mitri, for example, has a number of figures
removed because they would reveal too much about key details of the proposal.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the team has shared enough
information about the mission to reveal some of the key strategies.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">As described above, the E<sup>2</sup>T would
have limited, focused science goals allowing for a simple, low-cost
spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once at Saturn, the
spacecraft would orbit Saturn with six flybys of Enceladus and seventeen flybys
of Titan over 3.5 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the weeks between
encounters, the spacecraft would leisurely return each flyby’s data to
Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This enables a lower peak data
return rate, which ripples through the spacecraft’s design, lowering mission
costs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having just three instruments and
substantial time between encounters also reduces the number of mission
controllers needed, again reducing costs.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEji9rCrnTmT-pikY1LZIKJRQYUcGYEYwsRQnqjwG0Le4eVW6M3CmVxhMcivI81I5dP0UXK5xIFAVr9CG0trL0xUIfIEJtmySdNyUNjzGCqyxb7Cj7NkYlmttzCzSROXqjGh8hePQsaM6h8/s1600/JET+orbits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEji9rCrnTmT-pikY1LZIKJRQYUcGYEYwsRQnqjwG0Le4eVW6M3CmVxhMcivI81I5dP0UXK5xIFAVr9CG0trL0xUIfIEJtmySdNyUNjzGCqyxb7Cj7NkYlmttzCzSROXqjGh8hePQsaM6h8/s400/JET+orbits.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">E<sup>2</sup>T team hasn't release a description of its planned orbits around Saturn to explore Enceladus and Titan. However, the similar JET proposal would have used orbits to encounter Titan in multiple locations to allow imaging of different hemispheres. A series of orbits would have provided flights through Enceladus' plumes. Credit: JPL/Caltech</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T team proposes to use a
shared launch to a geostationary transfer orbit with another spacecraft such as
a communications satellite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Splitting
the launch cost would save the E<sup>2</sup>T up to 60 million Euros, or enough
to pay for much of the cost of mission operations on the way to Saturn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This strategy is enabled by using solar
electric propulsion, which allows the spacecraft to propel itself out of Earth
orbit and reach Saturn in just six years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(The JET mission would have required 7 to 8.5 years and ELF ~10 years to
reach the ringed world.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once at Saturn,
the spacecraft would use chemical propulsion to enter orbit and set up its
encounters.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Further cost savings would come from using
solar power to generate electrical power instead of the more costly
plutonium-powered radioisotope generators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Although part of the reason for this choice is that ESA lacks the
technology for radioisotope generators and US law prohibits NASA from supplying
one for a foreign spacecraft.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By using
massive solar arrays of 160 square meters (compared to around 70 square meters
for the Juno spacecraft), the spacecraft can create a comfortable 620 Watts of
power at Saturn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While a portion of this
power will need to go to heaters to keep the spacecraft and its instruments
warm (around half of Juno’s power is reserved for this), the E<sup>2</sup>T
mission would have ample power margins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOF26ohf9lc8cAIKQKoOLVU_-ez8FfaKJ2vWrBdCZ6mwWDnL8BU3flnGm7TVm7t0L2C5bJ4toocvNhwAyamwJI5T6bNidpW5gQTaoogQ0s9n0QrJU3-9wIdUFn3ypoyF10VS6Nhy7SYYI/s1600/E2T+spacecraft.tif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOF26ohf9lc8cAIKQKoOLVU_-ez8FfaKJ2vWrBdCZ6mwWDnL8BU3flnGm7TVm7t0L2C5bJ4toocvNhwAyamwJI5T6bNidpW5gQTaoogQ0s9n0QrJU3-9wIdUFn3ypoyF10VS6Nhy7SYYI/s400/E2T+spacecraft.tif" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">E<sup>2</sup>T spacecraft would use massive solar arrays to gather enough sunlight at Saturn to produce electrical power. </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Credit: Guiseppe Mitri and the Explorer of Enceladus and Titan team</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">It is these large solar arrays that enable the
spacecraft to return the data from mapping Titan’s surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ELF mission, by comparison, would have
had smaller solar arrays and would have lacked the power to return imaging data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The JET mission would have used radioisotope
generators, which would have supplied enough power, and spare heat, to enable the
mapping of Titan.)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The E<sup>2</sup>T proposal also has another
advantage over its predecessors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the
mission is selected by ESA, the team would have almost five years to refine the
design before the actual implementation begins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This is more time to fine tune cost savings and to take advantage of
advances in spacecraft technology that have the potential to reduce costs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s Discovery missions, by contrast, have
to be ready to begin implementation immediately after their selection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, the proposing teams must have
resolved all key design issues at the time of the proposal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The most encouraging sign for me, though, about
the E<sup>2</sup>T concept is that the community of scientists interested in
exploring Titan and Enceladus continue to put forth similar if more refined proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Preparing for these mission competitions is
time consuming and expensive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the
budget math wasn’t close, I don’t believe they would keep coming back.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another fact to consider is that in NASA’s
Discovery program, teams often propose missions several times, incorporating
the lessons learned each time their proposals are passed over.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The E<sup>2</sup>T team builds on the
experience of two previous proposals.</span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">If the E<sup>2</sup>T proposal is passed over,
the Discovery program may hold another lesson.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The team behind the OSIRIS-REx mission on its way to do a sample return
from the asteroid Bennu twice unsuccessfully proposed their ideas to the
Discovery program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their efforts finally
succeeded when they proposed to NASA’s New Frontiers program, which at the time
allowed PI costs of around $800M.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA
has begun the competition for its fourth New Frontiers mission, and proposals
for missions to Titan and Enceladus are requested (along with proposals for
missions to five other solar system destinations).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I expect that at least one mission similar to
E<sup>2</sup>T, perhaps with more instruments, will be proposed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(We may also see teams used the additional
funding available to propose a sample return from Enceladus’ plumes or a Titan
lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the time of the JET proposal,
a Titan lake lander also was proposed for the Discovery program but not
selected.)</span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 322.65pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ESA will announce the list of finalists for
its competition this June, NASA will announce its list in November.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If selected, an ESA mission to Titan and
Enceladus would launch around 2030 while a NASA mission would launch around
2025.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These two competitions likely represent
the best hope for fans of these two worlds to see a spacecraft arrive at Saturn
by the mid-2030s.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-33050951667444635452017-01-06T16:59:00.001-08:002017-01-06T16:59:37.578-08:00Lucy and Psyche Asteroid Missions<!--[if !mso]>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Earlier this week, Santa in the guise of NASA managers brought the
solar system small bodies science community a sack full of belated Christmas
presents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Venus science community
was unfortunately left with no presents under the tree.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As I’m sure almost all of the readers of this blog are aware, the space
agency announced that it selected the <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/meetings/jan2016/presentations/Levison.pdf">Lucy
multiple asteroid flyby mission</a> and the <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/meetings/jan2016/presentations/Elkins-Tanton.pdf">Psyche
asteroid orbital mission</a> as its thirteenth and fourteenth missions in its
low cost Discovery program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition,
the <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/meetings/jan2016/presentations/Mainzer.pdf">NEOCam
space telescope mission</a> to discover and map large numbers of asteroids was
awarded an additional year’s funding for its team to mature its design.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIDTpfpvNBAYpNEJqqsxoUIqCaKxqfaTS_aJOIhdqwT46MXrJPliq7hN37voBwo41zuzMgaSrqfPtNtGR00USOaItJx6LaO-oU0zEsoy8Y7pey_p-T81M_f08nu8LGu32Uyuw_8cHFgGI/s1600/discovery-missions-v33.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIDTpfpvNBAYpNEJqqsxoUIqCaKxqfaTS_aJOIhdqwT46MXrJPliq7hN37voBwo41zuzMgaSrqfPtNtGR00USOaItJx6LaO-oU0zEsoy8Y7pey_p-T81M_f08nu8LGu32Uyuw_8cHFgGI/s400/discovery-missions-v33.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An artist’s conception of the Lucy
spacecraft flying by the Trojan Eurybates and the Psyche spacecraft in orbit
around asteroid 16 Psyche.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: SwRI
and SSL/Peter Rubin</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The losers were a Venus mapping mission and Venus atmospheric probe
mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their rejection will continue a
drought in NASA launches to our sister world that followed the Magellan
mission’s launch in 1989.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When asked why
neither Venus mission was selected, the head of NASA Planetary Science
division, Jim Green, answered that the competition for selection was among
mission proposals and not between destinations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He said that the review teams found that the proposals for the Venus
missions scored less well than the proposals for the selected missions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Dates for key events in the Lucy and Psyche missions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Lucy Mission</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Location</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Dia-meter (km)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Spectral type</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Launch</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Oct. 2021</span></span></div>
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<td style="height: 14.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 41.9pt;" valign="bottom" width="56"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></td>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">DonaldJohanson</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">April 2025</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Main belt</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3.9</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">C</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Aug. 2027</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Greeks</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">64</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">C</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Sept. 2027</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Greeks</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Leucus</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">April 2028</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Greeks</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Nov. 2028</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Greeks</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">51</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">March 2033</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Psyche Mission</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Launch</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Oct. 2023</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">16 Psyche</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2030</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Main belt</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">210</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">M</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Lucy mission, named after the famous humanoid fossil, will survey
two asteroid fossil beds for clues to the early history of the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will study the Trojan asteroids that share
Jupiter’s orbit, either preceding (the “Greek” camp in L4 Lagrangian orbits) or
trailing (the “Trojan” camp in L5 Lagrangian orbits) the giant planet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Telescope observations suggest these bodies
have primitive compositions, several of which don’t appear to be represented in
our meteorite collections and that haven’t yet been visited by spacecraft.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvZFFhNegoqEGM29GWCf9YEhj0eb0SZcAiqqkP_oOdXu4fWaKdp9-YaKoY7xLoXfbh6wYkBNOQDBPjPC0BkMWthOh75KQywpHu_Tx0I5P3LMEL4Qflbrts4BZi0IwRyqDn0N4XF91VK_E/s1600/lucy-orbit.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvZFFhNegoqEGM29GWCf9YEhj0eb0SZcAiqqkP_oOdXu4fWaKdp9-YaKoY7xLoXfbh6wYkBNOQDBPjPC0BkMWthOh75KQywpHu_Tx0I5P3LMEL4Qflbrts4BZi0IwRyqDn0N4XF91VK_E/s400/lucy-orbit.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The planned orbits and asteroid encounters for the Lucy mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: SwRI</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The origin of these asteroid populations is a mystery, and its solution
would tell scientists much about the dynamics of the young solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Planetary scientists now believe that the
orbits of the giant planets migrated in toward the sun and then out again soon
after their formation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the process,
they scattered asteroids and comets hither and thither.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jupiter’s Lagrangian orbits may have been sticky
gravitational traps that caught a diverse sample of bodies that originated from
throughout the outer solar system to its fringes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another theory suggests that the Trojans
originated in the same region as Jupiter and followed it in its movements and
are therefore samples of conditions where Jupiter formed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Either way – and it’s possible that the present
population represents a mixture of sources – these bodies hold clues to
conditions and processes from the infancy of our solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The most recent planetary decadal survey emphasized the importance of these
bodies by prioritizing a mission to explore them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Trojan asteroids, at the boundary between
the inner and outer solar system, are one of the keys to understanding solar
system formation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Originally thought to
have been captured from the outer parts of the asteroid belt, Trojan asteroids
are proposed in new theories to have been captured instead from the Kuiper belt
during a phase of extreme mixing of the small bodies of the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In-depth study of these objects will provide
the opportunity to understand the degree of mixing in the solar system and to
determine the composition and physical characteristics of bodies that are among
the most primitive in the solar system.”</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The report listed three key questions related to the study of Trojan
asteroids in context with other bodies throughout the outer solar system:</span></div>
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<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>What were the initial stages, conditions, and
processes of solar system formation and the nature of the interstellar matter
that was incorporated? Important objects for study: comets, asteroids, Trojans,
and Kuiper belt objects.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>“What governed the accretion, supply of water,
chemistry, and internal differentiation of the inner planets and the evolution
of their atmospheres, and what roles did bombardment by large projectiles play?
Important objects for study: Mars, the Moon, Trojans, Venus, asteroids, and
comets.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>“What were the primordial sources of organic
matter, and where does organic synthesis continue today? Important objects for
study: comets, asteroids, Trojans, Kuiper belt objects, Enceladus, Europa,
Mars, Titan, and Uranian satellites.”</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Lucy looks to the New Horizon Pluto mission for two of its
instruments with near copies of that mission’s LORRI high resolution camera and
the RALPH color camera and imaging spectrometer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
third instrument is a thermal emission spectrometer derived from an instrument
on the OSIRIX-REx asteroid mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Data
from these instruments will provide information on the processes that shaped
these worlds, their composition, and physical properties of the surface
material such as the average size of particles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Tracking of the spacecraft’s radio signal will provide information on
each asteroids mass and therefore density which provides clues to their
composition and to whether they are solid objects or rubble piles.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The creativity behind the Lucy mission is that its proposers found a trajectory
that over 12 years encounters seven asteroids (two in a binary system).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Lucy mission will encounter its targets
using two large solar orbits that take it out to the orbit of Jupiter to
encounter the Trojan swarms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the
first of these orbits, it will fly by a tiny main belt asteroid (DonaldJohanson,
named after the paleontologist who led the team that found the Lucy fossil) and
then four diverse asteroids in the Greek population. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next orbit takes it into the Trojan
population for a single encounter with a binary asteroid system whose
characteristics are similar to those of comets suggesting they may be refugees
from the distant outer solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After this second long orbit, the spacecraft should have sufficient fuel
for further encounters with main belt and Trojan asteroids in a third orbit if
NASA approves funding for an extended mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Each of these extended orbits appear to take approximately six years,
so any encounters from an extended mission seem likely to occur in the late
2030s.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Lucy mission will study a variety of asteroids through brief, but
intense flybys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will be something
like photographing boulders along the roadside while speeding by on a freeway
for later analysis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second Discovery
mission selected, by comparison, will be like parking your car next to one
especially intriguing boulder for a nearly yearlong examination.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The single destination for the Psyche spacecraft will be the relatively
large asteroid of the same name.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
world is the largest of the rare (type M) metallic asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Psyche could be unique remnant of a class of
asteroids that formed so close to the sun that only metals could condense out
of the early solar nebula and was later flung into the main belt of the
asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or it could be the inner,
metallic core of a once larger protoplanet that had its overlying layers of
rock and possibly ice blasted off by impacts with other asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Telescopic observations reveal that Psyche’s surface is 90% metallic
and 10% silicate rock. The spacecraft’s instruments should distinguish
between these scenarios by measuring the composition in detail and looking at
the arrangement of the silicate material. The mission’s principal
investigator wrote me, “If the silicate material is primarily high-magnesian
pyroxene or olivine, then these silicates are likely the remnants of a
crystallizing magma ocean, and indicate that Psyche started as a differentiated
planetesimal and had its mantle stripped, validating the mission’s prime
hypothesis for this body. If the silicates are all primitive chondritic material,
then they were likely added as later impacts, and Psyche may have started life
as a highly reduced metallic body without a significant silicate mantle, or,
the nature of impact flux and its consequences are far more significant than
our current models indicate. The numbers and shapes of craters on Psyche’s
surface may help decipher that story.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
spacecraft’s gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer (derived from an instrument on the
MESSENGER Mercury orbiter) will help determine the asteroid’s bulk elemental
composition.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Psyche the asteroid won’t be an unchanged relic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its original surface will have been battered by
numerous impacts over the subsequent billions of years. The hydrated materials recently
discovered on its surface with telescopic studies, for example, are likely to
have been delivered by impacts of other asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s possible that by now, the body is a
jumbled rubble pile.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The cameras on the
spacecraft (near copies of the cameras that the Mars 2020 rover will carry)
will be tasked with taking the images that will allow geologists to reconstruct
its history.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By using filters tuned to
specific wavelengths of visible and near-infrared light, the camera’s images also
will help map the surface’s fine-scale composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLeoiEmAkfTSQCaEiahUYdv3miNOPA_BcjTvdJMtacS8OqrdCMp_JYkDVC8zKjgABXatrCsz143H_xwfXsINW79hF2kLsU8pJTnjeC8rmofiAYW89zGYvlqmqs89gvUYgZER27rNZ9mDw/s1600/Psyche+orbital+plan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLeoiEmAkfTSQCaEiahUYdv3miNOPA_BcjTvdJMtacS8OqrdCMp_JYkDVC8zKjgABXatrCsz143H_xwfXsINW79hF2kLsU8pJTnjeC8rmofiAYW89zGYvlqmqs89gvUYgZER27rNZ9mDw/s400/Psyche+orbital+plan.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The planned orbits for the Psyche
spacecraft around its namesake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit:
Psyche mission team.</span></td></tr>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Psyche asteroid’s sits deep within the asteroid belt at 3.3 times
the Earth’s distance from the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(By
comparison Vesta is at 2.6, the asteroid Ceres is at 3, and the Trojan
asteroids average 5.5 times the Earth’s distance from the sun.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To reach this world, the Psyche spacecraft,
like the Dawn spacecraft that has explored Vesta and Ceres, will use solar
electric propulsion to slowly but methodically reach its namesake world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The gentle thrust of its engines will deliver
the spacecraft to Psyche approximately seven years after launch and will allow
it to spiral down to progressively lower orbits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission’s planners expect the spacecraft to
orbit as close as 105 kilometers from the surface where the cameras will have a
resolution of 5 meters.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">While not yet selected as an approved mission, the NEOCam telescope was
awarded an additional year’s funding to mature its design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the team proposing this mission, this is
the third time it has vied for selection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It was originally proposed in 2006 and not selected as a finalist and
reproposed in 2010 when it was awarded funding to mature the technology of its
sensors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the mission eventually is
funded by NASA, it would have two goals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The first would be oriented toward protecting our planet by discovering
a large number of the small (from a few tens of meters across up to a
kilometer), near Earth asteroids that have evaded detection by other means.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second goal would be more scientifically
oriented with the NEOCam telescope expected to also observe more than a million
main belt asteroids and about a thousand new comets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The resulting database would allow sophisticated
analyses on the sizes, compositions, and orbital dynamics of the population of
small worlds.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So far as I can recall, this is the first time that a Discovery mission
finalist has been awarded additional funds to mature its design to be ready for
a future funding opportunity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Two other
missions from the 2010 competition were also given funding to mature instrument
technologies, but neither were finalists.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>NEOCam’s (this is an acronym for Near Earth Object Camera) focus on
small bodies whose orbits lie close to and often cross that of Earth’s places
it at the junction of several of NASA’s programs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From finding and mapping the location of
these objects, there is good science, there is planetary protection, and there
is finding potential worlds for future human exploration or mining.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, says NASA’s Green, the additional
funding awarded to mature NEOCam’s design is seen as a strategic investment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Unfortunately, missions to Venus are not seen as a strategic investment
and both finalists for this planet are simply left as unselected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I was very disappointed to see that neither
was selected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(I had hoped for the selection
of one Venus and one asteroid mission.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I
believe that this world can tell us much about the evolution of terrestrial
planets in our solar system and represents what is likely to be a relatively
common class of larger rocky worlds around other stars.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So for fans of Venus and for all the other solar system destinations,
what are the opportunities for selection of future missions?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The European Space Agency is currently reviewing
proposals for its fifth medium class science mission, which would enable
planetary missions roughly the same capability as NASA’s Discovery
program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I know that there is a proposal
for a <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2015/03/understanding-why-our-most-earth-like.html">Venus
mapping mission</a> and a Saturn orbiter to study the moons Titan and
Enceladus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on proposals for the
last competition, there are likely to be other missions proposed to study other
solar system bodies including orbiting main belt asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The planetary mission proposals are in
competition not only with each other but also with astrophysics and
heliophysics missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The selection of
finalists for this competition is expected by June, the selection of the final
winner is expected around 2019 with a launch around 2029.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA has just begun the process to select its next New Frontiers
mission, which will have a total budget (likely $1.2 billion or more) 80-100%
larger than the Discovery missions (likely $675 million or more).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These missions are selected from a
pre-approved list of high priority missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For this competition, this list is:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Comet Surface Sample Return</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample Return </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Titan and/or Enceladus</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Saturn Atmospheric Probe </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Venus atmospheric probe and lander</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Trojan Asteroid Tour and Rendezvous </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">We don’t know what the selection of the Discovery Lucy mission, which
will study Trojan asteroids, will have on the chances for the selection of a
New Frontiers Trojan mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
selection of the finalist proposals is expected in November, the final
selection in mid-2019, and launch by the end of 2025.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Finally, NASA plans – subject to the generosity of the President and
Congress with future funding – to launch Discovery missions approximately every
three years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the launch for the
Psyche mission in 2023, the 15<sup>th</sup> mission in this series should launch
around 2026.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Working backwards from that
date, we might see the start of the next completion late this decade and selection
of the next mission(s) in the early 2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There were many exciting missions proposed for this just completed
competition; many are likely to be re-proposed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And we are likely to see new ideas put forth. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As the selection of Lucy and Psyche shows, these competitions among
scientists result in creative and scientifically rich missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the mid-2020’s we should have another two
or more new missions to look forward to.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-82000294642353440892016-12-03T19:56:00.000-08:002016-12-03T19:56:13.841-08:00 Countdown to the Next NASA Discovery Mission Selection<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If NASA’s managers hold to their schedule, we will learn sometime this
month what NASA’s next planetary mission will be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This will bring to a close a two-year process
that saw 27 teams of scientists and engineers propose missions for the agency’s
Discovery program followed by a winnowing of the field to five finalists. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Out of the process should come the selection of
one (and if the gods smile, two) missions that will launch in the early 2020s
to study either Venus or the asteroids.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Discovery program funds NASA’s low cost planetary missions (typically
$600-700 million for all costs) to allow for more frequent missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Program">Nine missions</a> have
successfully flown through this program to solar system destinations as diverse
as Mercury, our moon, Mars, several comets, and several asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(For those who note that the next mission
will be the 13<sup>th</sup> selection, one previous mission failed, another is the
Kepler telescope observing planets around other stars, and one is still in
development.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi35rbVqAHZOrD1HWPlyOdRxkA_m_hegF9G5aCo0hfTKkGdRtfoHSqt1q0fJ6CAS-hGCQfOPT4hNJZ0FhdN0_aLXkXb94FX4bKhwofeJ8b8nX1KK39GwLXoA0dXfCfijNURdyWhjbB5mx0/s1600/Discovery+finalists.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi35rbVqAHZOrD1HWPlyOdRxkA_m_hegF9G5aCo0hfTKkGdRtfoHSqt1q0fJ6CAS-hGCQfOPT4hNJZ0FhdN0_aLXkXb94FX4bKhwofeJ8b8nX1KK39GwLXoA0dXfCfijNURdyWhjbB5mx0/s400/Discovery+finalists.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Discovery mission finalists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Text in red refers to advanced technologies different teams propose to
fly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the first round of this competition, the agency’s managers evaluated
the proposals on how compelling their science would be and on their engineering
and cost feasibility.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This led to the
selection of the five finalists:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <a href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2016/pdf/1560.pdf">Deep
Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging (DAVINCI)</a>
mission would use an entry probe to measure the trace gases in that planet’s
atmosphere to study the evolution and current state of the planet including recent
volcanic activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It would also image
the surface of one of the continent-sized highlands known as tesserae.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <a href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2016/pdf/2061.pdf">Lucy
mission</a> would perform flybys of several of the Trojan asteroids that share the
orbit of Jupiter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These compositionally
diverse bodies are believed to be remnants delivered to their current locations
from across the early outer solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Exploring these worlds would help us better understand the range of
conditions and orbital dynamics of the early solar system.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <a href="http://neocam.ipac.caltech.edu/">Near Earth Object Camera
(NEOCam)</a> mission would use a space telescope to both discover new asteroids
(especially those with orbits near Earth’s) and characterize a multitude of
know asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results would be a
massive database that could be mined to explore the range of asteroid sizes,
compositions, and orbital dynamics to study these worlds as entire populations.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <a href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2016/pdf/1631.pdf">Psyche
mission</a> would orbit the asteroid of the same name, which is the largest
metallic world in the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
body may be the exposed remnant center of a protoplanet, in which case it is
our only opportunity to explore the core of a world directly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or Psyche may be an asteroid that formed
close to the early sun before later being flung into the main asteroid belt.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <a href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2016/pdf/2439.pdf">Venus
Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy mission
(VERITAS)</a> mission would remap the surface of Venus using radar at much higher
resolution than the 1989 Magellan mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It would also conduct the first global mapping of the composition of the
surface.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(<a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.co.id/2015/10/finalists-for-next-nasa-discovery.html">In
a previous post</a>, I provided more detailed summaries of the goals of each of
these proposed missions.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The teams proposing these finalists have had approximately a year to
refine their proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The evaluation
of the final proposals is reputed to be a tough, rigorous examination looking into
all the details for any flaws.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Could all
the science goals be met?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Are there in
flaws in the design or proposed testing procedures?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Could the mission be implemented within
budget?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do all the key personnel
proposed for the mission have the experience to execute the tasks assigned to
them?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The final evaluations are delivered to NASA’s Associate Administrator
for Science, Thomas Zurbuchen, who will make the final decision on which
mission to fly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Assuming that more than
one proposal survives the technical evaluation wringer, he may include factors
such as his judgement of which scientific questions are more compelling or
which mission would best balance the overall planetary program (for example,
NASA hasn’t launched a mission to Venus since the late 1980s but has launched three
asteroid missions since then).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It is possible that Dr. Zurbuchen will announce two missions to
fly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the list of finalist proposals
was announced, NASA stated that a second mission might be selected if more than
one passed the final review process and sufficient funding was expected in
future budgets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Choosing two missions
from a single competition would make it easier for NASA to meet its goal of four
to five Discovery launches per decade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The
competitions are expensive and time consuming for both the planetary community
and NASA.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As recently as this summer,
the head of NASA’s planetary science division said that his goal was to make
the case for two selections, but statements by other NASA managers have sounded
more cautious.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">At least two recent events weigh, in my opinion, against a second
selection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First the Discovery mission
in development, the Mars InSight geophysical station, experienced development
problems and will need an additional $154 million to prepare for launch. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Much of that money may come from the Discovery
program’s budget, reducing funds available for future missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, the new president elect is promising
both massive tax cuts and massive new spending on infrastructure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Affording that program may lead to severe budget
cuts elsewhere in the federal budget, <a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/casey-dreier/2016/1118-nasa-under-trump.html">including
at NASA</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Budgetary caution may be
the smart move.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">While NASA’s managers likely will have found it hard to select from a
field of excellent candidates, among space enthusiasts there may be a clear
favorite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the past year, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/futureplanets.blogspot.com">my blog site</a> has posted a poll asking
readers to select their personal favorites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>VERITAS was the clear favorite (48% of votes) followed by Psyche (19%), DAVINCI
(14%), Lucy (9%), and NEOCAM (7%).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The
poll also asked for votes for a second mission, should one be selected, and the
results were similar.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I am surprised
that the votes are not more evenly distributed – all the proposals are scientifically
compelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Psyche and Lucy, for
example, would be missions of exploration to never before visited classes of
worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This poll likely represents the
personal preferences of planetary exploration enthusiasts (although members of
the professional planetary exploration community also read the blog and may
have voted), and therefore probably don’t represent the evaluation weightings
that NASA’s managers will apply.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(So
far, over a number of mission selections, my personal favorite proposals have
been selected perhaps about 25% of the time.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the next few weeks, we are likely to learn which of these proposals
will be NASA’s newest approved mission, or missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whichever one is chosen, it will add
significantly to our understanding of the solar system.</span></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-86567464898550328402016-11-14T22:09:00.000-08:002016-11-14T22:09:30.352-08:00The Election and NASA’s Planetary Program<!--[if !mso]>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Following the results of the Presidential election, I’m sure that many
of you are wondering how planetary exploration will fare at NASA over the next
few years.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The short answer is that nobody knows.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">However, I can discuss some of the factors that may decide that
question.<span> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The bottom line will be how well the program is funded.<span> </span>Depending on how political machinations turn
out, I can see situations in which the planetary program could receive
substantially less, about the same, or substantially more than it does this
year.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">As <a href="http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/news/fy2017-appropriations-its-not-over-till-its-over">SpacePolicyOnline
nicely describes</a>, the first key question will be whether the Republican
party, which controls both houses of Congress, decides to institute major
budget cuts to the overall discretionary budget.<span> </span>The federal budget can be described as a
retirement and medical benefits system (e.g., Social Security and Medicare),
the military, interest payments, and everything else (discretionary
funding).<span> </span>Discretionary spending in
Fiscal Year 2015 was approximately 16% of federal spending (the percentage for
Fiscal Year 2016 would be similar).<span> </span>Since
1990, NASA’s share of the Federal budget has been relatively flat with a slow
decline and today represents around 0.5%.<span>
</span>If total Federal spending declines, spending on NASA seems likely to
decline, too.</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy8Ti7POyDoiuRNMeHxpddrazJK-2ADA2iGWLOfn-z2VbELxWROOmvWN8CZKiND1qM3LLjbEa7-27HeHmdUHbiz3tgxKEHR6VJXhiC9WcTbH3Ut-nhqkgGEG7JQAsBMkUFRY03CsfM2_Y/s1600/federal+budget.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjy8Ti7POyDoiuRNMeHxpddrazJK-2ADA2iGWLOfn-z2VbELxWROOmvWN8CZKiND1qM3LLjbEa7-27HeHmdUHbiz3tgxKEHR6VJXhiC9WcTbH3Ut-nhqkgGEG7JQAsBMkUFRY03CsfM2_Y/s400/federal+budget.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Source: Wikipedia</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">For reasons too complex to go into here (but see the <a href="http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/news/fy2017-appropriations-its-not-over-till-its-over">SpacePolicyOnline
article</a>), one group of Republicans in the past year has wanted to institute
major cuts to discretionary spending.<span> </span>If
that happens, NASA’s overall spending number will compete for remaining funds
with spending on many other discretionary items (for example, the FBI, National
Parks, infrastructure spending). In this case, I think NASA’s top number would
likely be cut significantly. <span> </span>I also
think it would be unlikely that the planetary program would be spared cuts.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">However, if the eventual political consensus is to keep overall
discretionary spending at similar levels as recent years (true political
revolutions are rare), then other political factors will matter.<span> </span>The first is what level of priority the new
Trump government will give to NASA.<span> </span>So
far, all we have are <a href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3105/1">opinion
pieces</a> written by two people associated with the Trump campaign.<span> </span>The Trump administration’s actual policy will
emerge in the coming months to a year or so as the new administration finally
gets around to thinking about small federal agencies around which there is no
major political focus.<span> </span>I’m sure that
whatever policy statements emerge will laud NASA and proclaim lofty goals (NASA
is politically like apple pie; almost everyone professes to love its mission
and inspiration).<span> </span>Real policy, though,
is stated by funding.<span> </span>Will the words be
backed by money?<span> </span>Both the Bush and Obama
administrations, for example, had lofty public goals for NASA – return to the
moon, go to Mars – but their budgets kept NASA’s human spaceflight program
firmly in low orbit.<span> </span>Look to the
President’s proposed annual budgets rather than to speeches.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Whatever NASA top line funding number emerges, I suspect that the
planetary program will retain or potentially increase its share of that
budget.<span> </span>Exploring the solar system has had
strong Congressional support, most notably from Congressman Culberson of Texas,
chairman of the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice,
Science, and Related Agencies.<span> </span>In
addition, based on the stated science priorities of both President-elect Trump
and Republicans in Congress, the NASA’s program to study the Earth is likely to
suffer major cuts and the planetary program seems likely to benefit.<span> </span>(For the record, I am strongly opposed to
cuts to the Earth Science program.<span>
</span>Humans are dramatically changing our planet whether you look at
increases in greenhouse gasses, the nitrogen cycle, or the transformation of
whole ecosystems to name but a few.<span>
</span>Ignoring these changes is like pretending that your illness will go away
if you don’t take medical tests.)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">I personally expect that the status quo will persist for the coming
year as the new administration and Congress settle in.<span> </span>I expect that we will begin to learn how NASA
as a whole and the planetary program within that whole will fare starting in
2018.<span> </span>Given the lag in budgets and
eventual mission launches, the final annual budget numbers during the next four
years will determine the planetary program of the mid-2020s.</span></span></div>
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Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-92030135230704876422016-09-02T07:05:00.003-07:002016-09-02T07:05:43.397-07:00CommentsFor some reason, this blog has become the target of Indonesian (at least that's the language Google translate says it is) comment spanners. I have turned on comment moderation, but don't seem to be always receiving notifications of a new legitimate comments. I will log in daily to see if there are comments.<br />
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-7802667692838218012016-08-22T21:41:00.000-07:002016-08-22T21:41:11.368-07:00Selecting the Next New Frontiers Mission<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>NASA’s
managers have begun the process for a competition to select a new planetary
mission to launch in the mid-2020s that will address one of the most important
questions in planetary science.<span> </span>The
winning proposal will be the fourth mission in the agency’s New Frontiers
program that sent the New Horizons craft to Pluto, the Juno orbiter to Jupiter,
and will launch the OSIRIS-REx mission next month to return a sample from a
primitive asteroid.<span> </span></span></span></span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPd8zgPBq787uVcn8vcXV8PvFHEmRNpJa_mdv6TYlP7UzVHxegmaMBdFaj9EdL_hsU9eeqwauv4EOrdjyacmAFbksytU-8Swt4xysej161TWlnX_sWonjnNrcgUlMk62NqtDqRqTqMGbA/s1600/NF+Missions.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPd8zgPBq787uVcn8vcXV8PvFHEmRNpJa_mdv6TYlP7UzVHxegmaMBdFaj9EdL_hsU9eeqwauv4EOrdjyacmAFbksytU-8Swt4xysej161TWlnX_sWonjnNrcgUlMk62NqtDqRqTqMGbA/s400/NF+Missions.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Previously selected New Frontiers missions. Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>NASA’s
planetary missions fall into three categories of ambition and cost.<span> </span>At the high end at around $2-2.5 billion are
the Flagship missions that use highly capable spacecraft for exploration that
addresses a wide range of questions at the target world.<span> </span>These missions include the Curiosity Mars
rover, its 2020 Mars rover sibling in development, and the planned Europa
multi-flyby mission.<span> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>At the
low end, at around $600 million, are the Discovery missions that conduct highly
focused missions.<span> </span>Teams are free to
propose missions to study any solar system body except the Sun and Earth (which
are studied through other programs at NASA).<span> Ten</span> of these planetary missions have flown successfully and have included the
MESSENGER spacecraft that orbited Mercury and the DAWN spacecraft that
currently orbits the asteroid Ceres.<span>
</span>Next up will be the 2018 InSight geophysical station for Mars to be
followed by one or two missions to study either asteroids and/or Venus that
will be selected by the end of the year.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>At a total cost
of somewhere around $1 billion, the New Frontiers missions fit between these
two programs in ambition.<span> </span>The goal for
these missions are to address focused high priority science questions.<span>
The scientific community selects the candidate themes through the
Decadal Survey in which a long list of scientist-proposed ideas are
vetted and prioritized. </span><span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">The next New
Frontiers mission will be selected from among a list of the six mission themes
that the planetary science community identified as as highest priority to answer key
questions about our solar system: </span></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Comet Surface Sample Return
– Enable in-depth laboratory analysis of the most primitive material left form
the formation of the solar system</span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin
Sample Return – Enable in-depth laboratory analysis of material from our moon
to understand the how the bombardment of the inner solar system worlds by
comets and asteroids effected their formation </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Saturn Atmospheric Probe – Determine
the composition of Saturn’s atmosphere to help us better understand the
formation of the solar system </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Trojan Asteroid Tour and
Rendezvous – Explore a reservoir of remnant bodies from the formation of the
solar system to understand how materials from different regions of the early
solar system mixed during planetary formation </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Venus
In Situ Explorer –
Understand the formation, evolution, and current state of the atmosphere
and surface of our sister world that evolved into a hell</span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Ocean Worlds (Titan and/or
Enceladus) – Do these two moons of Saturn have the conditions to support life
and is life present?</span></span></span> </span></span></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>The first five of these themes were selected through the Decadal Survey. NASA’s managers added
the Ocean Worlds theme in response to a Congressional directive and further
discoveries by the Cassini mission.<span> </span>For
the next, fifth New Frontiers competition, Jupiter’s moon Io and a lunar geophysical
network theme will be added.</span></span></span>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>NASA’s
managers currently expect to select a New Frontiers mission from the list of
themes approximately every five years.<span>
</span>At that pace, completing this series of investigations, including the
new themes for the next selection, will require around forty years (assuming no
changes to the list from future Decadal Surveys).<span> </span>The pressure on each proposing team to have
their proposal selected now rather than waiting decades must be intense.<span> </span>(If this long time frame seems disheartening,
some of the themes may be addressed by other space agencies.<span> </span>A European team, for example, is proposing a
Saturn atmospheric probe to the European Space Agency.<span> </span>NASA Discovery missions may also partially
address some of the themes.<span> </span>Among the
five proposals competing to be among the next Discovery missions are spacecraft
that would address several of the atmospheric objectives of the Venus theme and
address the Trojan theme through flybys rather than the proposed New Frontiers
orbiter plus flybys approach.)</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>For some
of the themes, the Decadal Survey listed (and NASA’s managers have adopted)
very specific research goals.<span> </span>Any team
proposing a mission for the Venus in situ explorer, for example, must propose a
probe that would descend through the atmosphere and likely land on the surface.
Here are the objectives from the draft document announcing NASA’s request for
proposals (called an Announcement of Opportunity (AO)):</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">The <b>Venus In Situ Explorer </b>mission theme is focused on
examining the physics and chemistry of Venus’s atmosphere and crust by
characterizing variables that cannot be measured from orbit, including the
detailed composition of the lower atmosphere, and the elemental and
mineralogical composition of surface materials. The science objectives (listed
without priority) of this mission theme are: </span></i></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Understand the physics and chemistry of Venus’s
atmosphere through measurement of its composition, especially the abundances of
sulfur, trace gases, light stable isotopes, and noble-gas isotopes; </span></i></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Constrain the coupling of thermochemical,
photochemical, and dynamical processes in Venus’s atmosphere and between the
surface and atmosphere to understand radiative balance, climate, dynamics, and
chemical cycles; </span></i></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">U<i><span style="color: black;">nderstand the physics and chemistry of Venus’s
crust; </span></i></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Understand the properties of Venus’s atmosphere
down to the surface and improve understanding of Venus’s zonal cloud-level
winds; </span></i></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Understand the weathering environment of the
crust of Venus in the context of the dynamics of the atmosphere of Venus and
the composition and texture of its surface materials; and </span></i></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Search for evidence of past hydrological
cycles, oceans, and life and constraints on the evolution of Venus’s
atmosphere. </span></i></span></span></li>
</ul>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>This is
an ambitious list, and the AO specifically states that proposers can select,
but must thoroughly justify their selection, a subset of these goals.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span>By
contrast, the goals for the Trojan asteroid tour and rendezvous reflect the
fact that we know very little about these never-visited bodies that share
Jupiter’s orbit.<span> </span>This population of
small worlds represent fragments left over from the formation of the
planets.<span> </span>The diversity of the
composition of these worlds will allow scientists to select from among
competing models for how the solar system formed.<span> </span>The requirements for this theme are short:</span></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">The <b>Trojan Tour and Rendezvous </b>mission theme is intended to
examine two or more small bodies sharing the orbit of Jupiter, including one or
more flybys followed by an extended rendezvous with a Trojan object. The science
objective of this mission theme is: </span></i></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span>·<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black;">Visit, observe, and characterize multiple
Trojan asteroids </span></i></span></span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The briefness of
the requirements for the Trojan theme likely makes life harder for teams
proposing a mission to these worlds.<span> </span>In
judging proposals, NASA’s review teams will score proposals on their scientific
merit (~40% of score), the feasibility of the specific proposed instruments and
measurements (~30%), and overall mission feasibility within the cost cap
(~30%).<span> </span>Scientific merit includes an
explanation of the, “<i>Compelling nature
and scientific priority of the proposed investigation's science goals and
objectives. This factor includes the clarity of the goals and objectives…</i>”<span> </span>Teams proposing for Venus have the benefit of
goals developed and specified by the Venus science community while teams
proposing for the Trojans have to develop and defend their own list of specific
science goals and objectives.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(At the end of
this post, I’ve copied the specific goals for the remaining mission themes from
the AO.)</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Missions proposed
for the next New Frontiers program will need to meet many criteria including
these:</span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Total
cost for the development of the spacecraft, the instruments, and analysis of
the returned data cannot exceed $850 million.<span>
</span>NASA will separately pay for the mission’s launch and operation costs
while in flight (likely several tens of millions of dollars per year), which together
probably will bring the total cost of the mission to $1 billion or more.<span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Proposals
can include instruments paid for by foreign governments, but the costs of these
instruments cannot exceed one-third of the cost of the total instrument
compliment.<span> </span>As one NASA manager put it,
NASA invests a great deal of money to develop instrument technologies by
American scientists, and it wants to see a return on that investment by having
the majority of instruments on the selected mission be American.<span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Teams
can propose the use of radioisotope heaters and radioisotope electrical power
generators for their missions.<span> </span>These
units would be useful for missions operating far from the sun (for example, at
Saturn).<span> </span>However, a mission using these
units would need to reserve a substantial portion of the core $850 million to
cover the cost of these units.<span> </span>Using
just the heaters would incur a cost of $47-79 million (depending on the number)
and the electrical power generators would cost $133-195 million (again based on the
number of generators used).<span> </span>These costs
could drastically reduce the capabilities of the spacecraft and instruments
compared to missions that don’t require these technologies.</span></span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I suspect that
for many readers of this blog, a mission to return to Enceladus or Titan to
continue their exploration with a new generation of spacecraft and instruments
would be a personal favorite.<span> </span>I share
that desire, but also recognize the challenges any proposal to these worlds
would face.<span> </span>First, these worlds were
just added to the list of candidate themes in the past few months.<span> </span>The in-depth analysis of objectives for these
missions is just getting underway by the scientific community.<span> </span>Second, the technical maturity of instruments
to explore their oceans, determine their habitability, and search for life may
be low – NASA has not made major investments in these technologies for these
worlds (but plans to begin to do so).<span>
</span>And third, these missions are likely to need radioisotope power
generators and their cost would eat significantly into the mission budget,
potentially making it less competitive.<span>
</span>(Solar powered missions are possible at Saturn, but appear to be on the
edge technically.<span> </span>This could make a
proposal that depends on solar power appear technically risky.)<span> </span>Balancing these negatives is a heritage of
three Discovery-class proposals to these worlds that were not selected but
which could form the basis of a New Frontiers-class mission.<span> </span>Still, I personally doubt that a mission to
these moons will be selected this time.<span>
</span>(If I am wrong, given a mid-2020’s launch and a flight that could last
10 years, it could be the mid-2030s before the spacecraft arrives at its
target.)</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I’ve learned to
not try to predict which Discovery or New Frontiers mission is likely to be
selected from the list of proposals made.<span>
</span>The scrutiny given these proposals is intense.<span> </span>Any fault with the details of a proposal can
rule it out.<span> </span>If the review panel decides
that a proposed key engineering manager doesn’t have sufficient experience,
that could kill a proposal.<span> </span>If the
review panel concludes that a technology proposed to be used for the spacecraft
or a key instrument lacks maturity, that could kill a proposal.<span> </span>If the review panel concludes that the
specific set of scientific objectives proposed are not as compelling as for
other proposals, that could kill a proposal.<span>
</span>No matter how sexy a proposal might look from the limited information
that we in the general public get to see, faults in the details that we never
see may rule it out.</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">However, we need
to remember that all the candidate themes for the upcoming selection of the
fourth New Frontiers mission represent questions deemed to be among the highest
priority for exploring the solar system.<span>
</span>Whichever mission is finally selected will significantly expand our
understanding of the solar system.</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Schedule for the
next New Frontiers competition and launch:</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Final AO Release Date <span> </span>-- January 2017 (target)</span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Deadline for Receipt of
Proposals -- AO Release + 3 months + 4 days </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Selection of a subset
(historically, two) of proposals for further study -- November 2017 (AO release
+ 10 months) </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">Final selection -- July 2019
(target)</span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Launch --
December 31, 2024 if solar powered or December 31, 2025 if radioisotope power
sources are required</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Flight time to
the target world: Days (the moon), months (Venus), years to a decade or more
(comet with Earth return, Saturn, or Trojan asteroids)</span></span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Science goals for
the remaining mission themes (goals for the Venus and Trojan asteroid themes
listed above):</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">The <b>Comet Surface Sample Return </b>mission theme is focused on
acquiring and returning to Earth a macroscopic sample from the surface of a
comet nucleus using a sampling technique that preserves organic material in the
sample. The mission theme would also use additional instrumentation on the
spacecraft to determine the geologic and geomorphologic context of the sampled
region. Because of the increasingly blurred distinction between comets and the
most primitive asteroids, many important objectives of an asteroid sample
return mission could also be accomplished by this mission. The science
objectives (listed without priority) of this mission theme are. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Acquire and return to Earth for laboratory analysis a
macroscopic comet nucleus surface sample; </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Characterize the surface region sampled; and </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Preserve sample complex organics. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">The <b>Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample Return </b>mission
theme is focused on returning samples from this ancient and deeply excavated
impact basin to Earth for characterization and study. In addition to returning
samples, this mission would also document the geologic context of the landing
site. The science objectives (listed without priority) of this mission theme
are: </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Elucidate the nature of the Moon’s lower crust and/or mantle by
direct measurements of its composition and of sample ages; </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Determine the chronology of basin-forming impacts and constrain
the period of late, heavy bombardment in the inner solar system, and thus,
address fundamental questions of inner solar system impact processes and
chronology; </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Characterize a large lunar impact basin through “ground truth”
validation of global, regional, and local remotely sensed data of the sampled
site; </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Elucidate the sources of thorium and other heat-producing
elements to understand lunar differentiation and thermal evolution; and </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Determine the age and composition of farside basalts to determine
how mantle source regions on the Moon’s farside differ from the basalts from
regions sampled by Apollo and Luna </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">The <b>Ocean Worlds </b>mission theme is focused on the search for
signs of extant life and/or characterizing the potential habitability of Titan
and/or Enceladus. For Enceladus, the science objectives (listed without
priority) of this mission theme are: </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Assess the habitability of Enceladus’ ocean; and </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Search for signs of biosignatures and/or evidence of extant
life. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">For Titan, the science objectives (listed without priority) of the
Ocean Worlds mission theme are: </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Understand the organic and methanogenic cycle on Titan,
especially as it relates to prebiotic chemistry; and </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: black;">• Investigate the subsurface ocean and/or liquid reservoirs,
particularly their evolution and possible interaction with the surface. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<i>
</i><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; page-break-before: always;">
<br /></div>
<i>
</i><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">The <b>Saturn Probe </b>mission
theme is intended to deploy one or more probes into Saturn’s atmosphere to
directly determine the structure of the atmosphere as well as noble gas abundances
and isotopic ratios of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. The science
objectives (listed without priority) of this mission theme are: </span></span></span></i></div>
<i>
</i><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">• Determine noble gas
abundances and isotopic ratios of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen in
Saturn’s atmosphere; and </span></span></span></i></div>
<i>
</i><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: black;">• Determine the atmospheric
structure at the probe descent location. </span></span></span></i></div>
<i>
</i><div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<br />Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-51007922919098721912016-06-06T21:32:00.000-07:002016-06-06T21:32:46.312-07:00Red Dragon and Planetary Exploration<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A few
weeks ago, as I’m sure most people reading this blog know, Elon Musk, the CEO
of SpaceX announced plans to land their Dragon spacecraft, largely at the
company’s expense, on Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While this
plan is audacious enough, Musk has previously positioned SpaceX’s Dragon
capsule as an all-purpose lander suitable to explore almost the entire solar
system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Since
Musk’s announcement, I’ve been doing research and thinking about what the
availability of a commercial planetary lander might mean for planetary exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even if landing the company’s Dragon
spacecraft on Mars proves to be a one-time event, it will demonstrate that the
technologies for planetary missions have become widely available.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">What if,
though, SpaceX’s Dragon spacecraft becomes a standard catalog item that could
ordered, the way a launch vehicle is?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>What might the impact be on planetary exploration?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As I thought about this, I concluded that
three questions are key: How flexible will the Dragon spacecraft be as a
payload delivery vehicle?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How far afield
can it operate in the solar system without design changes so massive that it
becomes necessary to essentially redesign it?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And how will be missions it might fly be paid for?</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4A1OW2FhqJIui6WRCpSP8H374N0W75VKO9P_dPdCNk7zfW3tDcdBhtzLWG_9i6nBaIZY2XlvRs1fH8GnR2lZE27rHsxJ56ZTt0CsbE0_QL1REAyPmVI49FcJTEPhLV0SwvKhXCsn2A0M/s1600/20140619_Dragon_V2_f840.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4A1OW2FhqJIui6WRCpSP8H374N0W75VKO9P_dPdCNk7zfW3tDcdBhtzLWG_9i6nBaIZY2XlvRs1fH8GnR2lZE27rHsxJ56ZTt0CsbE0_QL1REAyPmVI49FcJTEPhLV0SwvKhXCsn2A0M/s400/20140619_Dragon_V2_f840.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Mock up of the Dragon version 2 capsule for Earth orbital missions. Credit SpaceX.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">First,
some background on the Dragon spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>SpaceX currently is using the first version of the uncrewed Dragon
spacecraft to deliver supplies to the International Space Station.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also being being funded by NASA to
design a crewed version of the spacecraft to deliver astronauts. (I couldn’t
find out what proportion of the Dragon development is being funded by NASA
versus by SpaceX’s own funds.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Musk has
ensured that this second version incorporates key technologies such as heat
shields that can survive atmospheric entry from interplanetary speeds and built
in thrusters that allow soft landings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(</span><a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2016/05/03/spacex_announces_a_mission_to_land_on_mars_by_2018.html"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Phil Plait at Slate
magazine</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;">
has an excellent article on the technologies involved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_V2"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Wikipedia</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> has additional information.)</span></span>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Designing
a craft for interplanetary flight requires numerous differences from a craft
designed to operate in low Earth orbit for short periods of time and then return
to our world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Systems must be able to
function for months to years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Electronics must be able to function in the harsher radiation
environment outside the Earth’s magnetosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The communications system must be able to transmit and receive data over
distances of hundreds of millions of kilometers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There will be hours to days between
communications periods, requiring the craft to be able to operate autonomously.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3tsNzZCI3Bp312ntrDZKa1_Ma2y3XqacImtdCHivAOM3r6uUyGsE4belRzbG-SBkS-fs-Sip_8y5hrogzUy6hmYnd3Ehrk-RHlQcdWWqPBBbA2ztISJttS66VVf44Hq7SadzQe4KF4vE/s1600/dragon_on_mars.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="288" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3tsNzZCI3Bp312ntrDZKa1_Ma2y3XqacImtdCHivAOM3r6uUyGsE4belRzbG-SBkS-fs-Sip_8y5hrogzUy6hmYnd3Ehrk-RHlQcdWWqPBBbA2ztISJttS66VVf44Hq7SadzQe4KF4vE/s400/dragon_on_mars.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Artist's conception of the Red Dragon capsule on the surface of Mars. Credit: SpaceX.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">To
operate as a long-lived lander on the surface of a planet, the spacecraft must
deploy solar panels to generate power after touch down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(I’ve not heard of any plans to use
plutonium-based power generators for the Dragon spacecraft.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Batteries must be carried and recharged to
keep the spacecraft operating during the night.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And especially on frigid Mars, the spacecraft will need insulation and
heaters to keep it warm.</span></span>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">These
problems are well known, and we can presume that SpaceX’s engineers have
designed the Dragon spacecraft and their subsystems with these issues in
mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s worth pausing for a moment to
consider the kind of commitment this implies to SpaceX’s commitment to
revolutionize Martian exploration because these enhancements likely aren’t
cheap.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">By making
these investments in the basic Dragon spacecraft design, referred to as the Red
Dragon for Mars missions, SpaceX can take advantage of what is likely to be a
low volume assembly line building these craft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While NASA has designs of its own it can reuse to land on Mars, flights
are likely to be infrequent enough that their components may gradually become
obsolete and the expertise to rebuild and test them may fade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>SpaceX presumably will be building several
Dragon spacecraft a decade, allowing it to gradually update the design and keep
its expertise intact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The result will likely
be a lander that may be substantially cheaper than NASA reusing its existing
designs for some Mars missions.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">How
Flexible is the Interplanetary Dragon Lander?</span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I know of
two proposals for scientific missions that would use the Red Dragon spacecraft.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One, IceBreaker, led by NASA’s Chris
McKay would return to the northern polar plains of Mars to further investigate
the subsurface ices found there for habitability and signs of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The appeal of the Dragon spacecraft appears
to have been its expected low cost.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>McKay has also proposed the IceBreaker mission using a near copy of the
much smaller NASA Phoenix and InSight landers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The instruments would have weighed a few tens of kilograms, barely
taking advantage of the payload that the Red Dragon could deliver.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Dragon lander (dubbed the IceDragon for
this concept), however, could have carried a much larger drill than the
Phoenix-derived lander, allowing samples to be collected from much further
below the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The one published
abstract for the IceDragon mission from several years ago proposed a 2 meter
drill.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Technology development since then
</span><a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2016/20160119-planetary-deep-drill-field-test.html"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">might allow much deeper
drilling</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.)</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCKwLP7Auw1EMR4dIkjjzVtJ3teuaP7AVvGxH7BhMPez4EUq2cszZ9mroo64qPuE-rBXkyqgr4HEx73vYWdaWI5XomESTU5443qm5qdLiKYCxm5meTZfXPmdfkaZiO8kvdr_y3eBPrfN0/s1600/IceDragon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCKwLP7Auw1EMR4dIkjjzVtJ3teuaP7AVvGxH7BhMPez4EUq2cszZ9mroo64qPuE-rBXkyqgr4HEx73vYWdaWI5XomESTU5443qm5qdLiKYCxm5meTZfXPmdfkaZiO8kvdr_y3eBPrfN0/s400/IceDragon.jpg" width="355" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Conceptual design for the IceDragon version of the Red Dragon capsule that could be sent to sample the icy plains of Mars' arctic regions. Human figure shown for scale. Credit: NASA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The
second proposal would be to use the Dragon spacecraft to deliver a launch
vehicle to return samples directly from the surface of Mars to the Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This concept takes full advantage of the
payload mass and volume offered by the Dragon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Other concepts proposed to return samples to Earth envision two
missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first would land on Mars
and launch a sample canister into Martian orbit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second would retrieve the canister and
perform the voyage to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The large
ascent vehicle enabled by the Dragon would, the proposers argue, combine these
two functions to lower costs, complexity, and risk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Unfortunately,
this proposal requires that a rover already be on Mars that could deliver a
canister with samples to the Dragon spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While NASA’s planned 2020 Mars rover will collect samples, it will leave
them on the surface for a later rover to collect and return to an ascent
vehicle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There isn’t the payload mass
for the proposed Dragon mission to carry its own fetch rover and a direct-to-Earth
ascent return vehicle, although it could launch samples into Martian orbit if
it has to carry its own fetch rover according to the proposers.</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0oT4GEbnui88EpwJadr3IyJkwuNIUxMq787a5LoE6x219OcqNMRJzc4_GBeVmVcP2TBue9cgF9OKYQTd4dfiN6knF5kzkJZ6LgSfytXvVRwZgLJ1tg7Jc7mDipypp3Lf0iq1L98gUHyE/s1600/Red+Dragon+sample+return.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="341" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0oT4GEbnui88EpwJadr3IyJkwuNIUxMq787a5LoE6x219OcqNMRJzc4_GBeVmVcP2TBue9cgF9OKYQTd4dfiN6knF5kzkJZ6LgSfytXvVRwZgLJ1tg7Jc7mDipypp3Lf0iq1L98gUHyE/s400/Red+Dragon+sample+return.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Conceptual design for the Red Dragon used to carry a Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV) and an Earth Return Vehicle (ERV). Credit: NASA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">There’s
much we don’t know about the Red Dragon design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Will it be suited only to missions where the scientific investigations
are limited to the immediate landing site where robotic arms could reach such
as these two proposals?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That would
suggest missions to locations where homogenous conditions exist over large
areas such as the polar plains of Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A
variation of the proposal to use the Dragon design to return samples from Mars
would be to use it to return samples from different regions of the moon or from
some of the larger asteroids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the
scientists proposing lunar sample returns are interested in broad regional
differences in composition, grabbing samples with an arm in the immediate
vicinity of the lander would meet their goals.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">However,
many of the goals for lunar and Martian exploration require rovers that can
reach and study or sample multiple locations across within a much larger study
area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have not seen any analysis about
whether delivering a capable rover would be a feasible extension of the Red
Dragon’s design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Could the Dragon design
host a moderately large rover (smaller than the Curiosity rover but perhaps
bigger than the Opportunity rover) and deploy it to the surface by including a
large hatch and a ramp or crane?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">NASA
already has two current, proven designs for Martian landers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first, used for the Phoenix and InSight
missions, delivers a few tens of kilograms of instruments using a small,
stationary lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The key advantage of
this platform is that it provides a soft landing, and its low stature provides
easy access to the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second
system used parachutes and a rocket-powered skycrane to deliver the Curiosity
rover to the surface (and the design will be reused for the 2020 rover).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It also places up to 930 kilograms of rover
directly on the surface, eliminating the need for ramps to get the rover off
the lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The landing system is also
designed with the myriad of safety requirements needed for a rover/lander to
use a plutonium power supply.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Red
Dragon will be able to deliver a slightly more massive payload, about 1000
kilograms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the payload space
appears large by the standards of most planetary landers, it doesn’t appear
large enough to carry a duplicate of the Curiosity rover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike the skycrane landing system, the
payload will sit inside a large spacecraft, well above the ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Long robotic arms or drills would be needed
to bring surface samples to instruments inside the spacecraft or place small
instruments on the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Delivering a
large package such as a rover to the surface would require ramps or a
crane.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I expect that these problems are
solvable, but they create a level of complexity that NASA’s skycrane system was
invented to avoid.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh32tC4ILxRcfOeS914ttBxz-3KBw0JhB6I9kx5Yo9yl9guLTXvEcMRDTJmqj9ce7IkugZX0iduMPVQsujLJvhApGzFtvzTszruEaLZ857yChm-8sYAnEtnOC5J1ytXhS6Gdf7sSDfkLGk/s1600/Dragon+Curiosity+comparison.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh32tC4ILxRcfOeS914ttBxz-3KBw0JhB6I9kx5Yo9yl9guLTXvEcMRDTJmqj9ce7IkugZX0iduMPVQsujLJvhApGzFtvzTszruEaLZ857yChm-8sYAnEtnOC5J1ytXhS6Gdf7sSDfkLGk/s400/Dragon+Curiosity+comparison.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Comparison of the sizes of the Dragon capsule (left) and the Curiosity rover entry and descent system. The Dragon capsule would not have the width to carry a Curiosity-sized rover, but likely could carry a smaller rover to the Martian surface. Credit: NASA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Beyond the
Moon and Mars</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Musk has been <a href="http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/05/falcon-heavy-dragon-solar-system-explorer/">quoted saying</a> that the Dragon capsule can be used to
explore almost any world in the solar system: “With Dragon launched on a Falcon
Heavy, it can go pretty much anywhere in the solar system, because that’s a
heck of a big rocket…<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dragon 2 is
capable of transporting scientific payloads to anywhere in the solar system,
with a liquid or solid surface, with or without an atmosphere. So Dragon is
really a crew transport and science delivery platform…<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dragon, with the heat shield, parachutes and
propulsive landing capability, is able to land on a planet that has higher
entry heating, like Mars. It can also land on the Moon, or potentially conduct
a Europa mission.”</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Musk’s claim appears to touch
on three separate issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first is
whether the Falcon Heavy could propel a Dragon spacecraft to any location in
the solar system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The answer likely is
yes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For our moon, Mars, and Venus, the
launcher will be able to send the Dragon directly to these worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the Falcon Heavy cannot send a Dragon
directly to Mercury or the outer planets, it certainly could launch it on a
trajectory that would use Venus and/or Earth gravity assists to provide the
additional velocity needed.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The second issue is whether the
Dragon could land on these more distant worlds, which breaks into two
parts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first is how the Dragon
capsule would kill the high approach velocity when it reaches its
destination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The atmospheres of Mars,
Venus, and Titan can kill much of the speed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s less clear to me whether the Dragon spacecraft would carry enough
fuel to first brake into, say, Jovian orbit and then kill the remaining
velocity to land on Europa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(A direct
landing on Europa without entering Jovian orbit also would need to kill a lot
of speed.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Musk’s statements suggest it
could, but for now we lack details.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The third issue is whether the
Dragon spacecraft could deal with the special environmental issues at various
worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The moon and Mars are reasonably
straightforward challenges both because of their proximity and their
comparatively (for planetary destinations) benign environments. By contrast, while
the Mercurian poles are cool, the spacecraft would need to deal with intense
solar heating on the way to this world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The surface of Venus is intensely hot and has a crushing atmospheric surface
pressure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jupiter’s moon Europa sits
deep within an intense, electronics frying, radiation belt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Titan’s surface is as bitterly cold as Venus’
is broiling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Landing on a small asteroid
or comet may require special adaptations such as harpoons to hold the capsule
on the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Traveling to any world
beyond Jupiter will require a radioisotope generator for power (Saturn <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">might</i> be an exception).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It is possible to design
spacecraft to handle any of these challenges.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Missions have been proposed to land on each of these worlds, but using
custom designs that take into account the unique challenges of each
environments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Would it be cost effective
to modify the Dragon spacecraft to handle the challenges of any of these
worlds, or more cost effective to design a custom spacecraft?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There’s also the question of
whether a prior scouting mission would be needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the moon and for high priority locations
on Mars, existing high resolution images would allow mission planners to
identify precise locations of safe terrain within otherwise rugged but
scientifically interesting terrains.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
same will be true for selected sites on Europa following NASA’s planned Europa
Multiple Flyby mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What about a
world with only coarse resolution mapping or none at all?</span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixogHwUsQvfchGw2glbjiFfd9gG_3EXWkn3Ip5h_pVTx3M0CpLVTbJ9Vm6_FTUCyS9wbBb6EtHNS5sy1XJTHaJeOh2SAzgaoI7iy1tTcrPXTSU3VsH3eVyiI_DijzuOJuk_vMWfarWHMQ/s1600/Salt+deposits+on+Ceres.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixogHwUsQvfchGw2glbjiFfd9gG_3EXWkn3Ip5h_pVTx3M0CpLVTbJ9Vm6_FTUCyS9wbBb6EtHNS5sy1XJTHaJeOh2SAzgaoI7iy1tTcrPXTSU3VsH3eVyiI_DijzuOJuk_vMWfarWHMQ/s400/Salt+deposits+on+Ceres.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Example of the rugged terrain the salt deposits of Ceres are found on. Credit: </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As a thought experiment, I
considered a Dragon mission to land on the asteroid Ceres to explore the salts
on the surface that have erupted from a likely (now frozen?) subterranean
ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We have moderate resolution (35
meters) images of the surface from the Dawn spacecraft currently orbiting that
world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The images of the terrain where
the exposed salts are found that I’ve seen, however, appear quite rugged at 35
m resolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And a lot of
lander-killing ruggedness can hide within that scale of resolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For assessing a potential Martian landing
site, by comparison, NASA likes to have images with sub-meter resolution.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I’m sure that the Dragon capsule
or its service module could physically carry a high resolution camera to scout
for safe landing sites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But would the
spacecraft have the precise pointing capability to accurately aim the camera and
the stability to prevent image jitter?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Again, solutions to these problems are well known, but is this something
that would have to be added to the Dragon spacecraft?</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Who Will Pay for Interplanetary
Dragon Missions?</span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Until we
know more about the capabilities of the Red Dragon capsule, it is hard to know
what its advantages and disadvantages will be compared to existing lander
designs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It may provide a significant cost
advantage – remember that likely assembly line of Dragon spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the lander hardware is just one part
of the cost of a mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is still
the cost of the launch, the instruments, potentially a rover or a launch
vehicle for sample return, and operations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Even if
the cost of a Red Dragon landing were free, these other costs would drive the
total mission costs to several hundred millions of dollars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This puts a Red Dragon-based mission in
competition for funding with all the other missions planetary scientists would
like to conduct.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A lunar or Martian
landing mission may be selected by NASA only once a decade, and the Red Dragon
may or may not be the most suitable design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As an
alternative, perhaps SpaceX will schedule a Martian landing every two years or
so and will sell payload space to space agencies, universities, and even
private companies to cover costs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then
the cost to any individual space agency, university research group, or company
might be relatively small – a few million or tens of millions of dollars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Or Musk
may use the profits from SpaceX or a portion of his personal fortune to drive
his own program of Mars robotic exploration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>From his statements we know he wants to eventually take humans to Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps Red Dragon is a stepping stone to
that grander vision.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Red
Dragon is possible because of the vision and drive of its founder, Elon
Musk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He made a strategic decision to
build a capsule that could land on Mars as well as meet NASA’s needs in near
Earth orbit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We will need to wait to
learn what types of landed missions that vision will encompass and which worlds
beyond Mars Musk wants to explore.</span></span></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-9557947815076316222016-04-08T11:28:00.001-07:002016-04-12T08:39:40.261-07:00Defining the Missions for the Ocean Worlds<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
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mso-para-margin-top:0in;
mso-para-margin-right:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:8.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
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mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:11.0pt;
font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
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<![endif]-->
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">One of the major revolutions in planetary science that I’ve seen in my
lifetime is the discovery that the solar system contains not just one ocean
world – our Earth – but several ocean worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Unlike or planet, which has its oceans on the surface, these other
worlds trap their oceans beneath a surface layer of ice (or in the possible
case of the asteroid Ceres, beneath a rocky shell).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For several of these worlds such as Jupiter’s
moons Ganymede and Callisto, the oceans appear to be locked between layers of ice
and therefore would be unlikely candidates for abodes of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For two of the moons, Jupiter’s Europa and
Saturn’s Enceladus, the oceans appear to lie directly on top of a rocky core
that would provide key elements needed to support life as well as energy from
possible hydrothermal vents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Saturn’s
moon Titan is a unique case, with seas of liquid ethane, methane, and propane
on the surface and a water ocean in the interior that may or may not be in
contact with the rocky core and occasionally interact with the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(This <a href="http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=4541">article</a> and <a href="http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/infographics/infographic.view.php?id=11262">poster</a>
give more background on these worlds and their oceans.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">NASA’s managers, at the direction of Congress, have begun to put
together an Ocean Worlds program to explore Europa, Titan, and Enceladus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At a recent meeting of an advisory group for
NASA, the Committee on Astrobiology and Planetary Science (CAPS), Jim Green,
the head of NASA’s Planetary Science Division, and Barry Goldstein, from the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, provided updates on plans to explore these worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this post, I’ll report on the highlights
of their talks (the presentations will be posted to <a href="chrome://updatescan/content/diffPage.xul?id=1150&title=Committee%20on%20Astrobiology%20and%20Planetary%20Science&url=http%3A//sites.nationalacademies.org/SSB/SSB_067577&oldDate=5%20weeks%20ago&newDate=today%20at%207%3A49&delay=0">this site</a> (scroll
down to the March 29-31 meeting) sometime in the future).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Europa Multi-flyby Mission</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The only currently approved mission in the Ocean Worlds program is the
Europa multi-flyby spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
mission, estimated to cost ~$2 billion, will orbit Jupiter and will take
approximately 45 toe dips into the high radiation belts surrounding this moon
to make close flybys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In between flybys,
the spacecraft will have time to transmit the volumes of data it collected up
close back to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(This <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/meetings/jul2013/presentations/Clipper_Summary.pdf">presentation</a>
gives a good overview of the mission design and science goals while this <a href="http://sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/ssbsite/documents/webpage/ssb_169419.pdf">presentation</a>
summarizes the instrument payload.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The mission is well into its design phase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the CAPS meeting, the project manager,
Barry Goldstein with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, updated the committee
members on refinements to the design.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Until recently, NASA’s managers had hoped that the main spacecraft
could carry a 250 kilogram free flying daughter spacecraft to conduct
complimentary studies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ideas ranged from
a simple Europa lander, to a spacecraft that would divert to flyby the volcanic
moon Io, to a spacecraft dedicated to flying through any plumes ejecting
material from the surface of Europa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA
had invited the European Space Agency to propose (and pay for) a daughter
spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, a group at
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center had developed a proposal for a free flyer
that would swoop even lower to the surface than the main spacecraft to fly
through any plumes while carrying a mass spectrometer more tuned to identifying
bio signatures than the main spacecraft’s instruments.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Unfortunately, it appears that NASA has decided to drop the idea of a
daughter spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m told that ESA’s
managers determined that they had no way to fund such a spacecraft on the
timeline for the Europa mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s
managers may have also decided they lacked the funding to build their own daughter
spacecraft.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Dropping the daughter spacecraft opens up new possibilities for
launching the multi-flyby spacecraft to Jupiter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s primary plan for sending this
spacecraft on its way is the Space Launch System (SLS) that would enable a
direct launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This extremely large
booster could launch the spacecraft directly to Jupiter with a flight time of
2.1 to 2.5 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will have
sufficient heft to give the project a 33-35% mass margin, providing a cushion
should the actual spacecraft as finally implemented weigh more than its
designers currently think it will (which usually happens).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The SLS, however, is still in development and its reliability will only
be proven through one or more future flights.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In addition, this program is something of a political football, and so
assuming it will be funded through development and into the time period of the
Europa launch is a risk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s also
unclear what an SLS launch would cost and whether or not the planetary science
program could afford it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The project’s
managers, therefore, are designing the spacecraft to also be capable of being
launched on a less powerful commercial launch vehicle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Currently that backup would be either an Atlas V 551 or Delta IV Heavy
booster followed by three Earth and one Venus flybys to receive gravity assist
boost that would enable the final flight to Jupiter (known as the EVEEGA
trajectory).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This extended looping
flight would take 7.4 years to reach the Jovian system.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Dropping the 250 kilogram free flyer (plus supporting equipment on the
main spacecraft) opens up an alternative launch plan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By enlarging the spacecraft’s propellant
tanks to allow a large deep space maneuver to set up a single Earth gravity
assist (known as the ∆v/EGA trajectory), a Delta IV Heavy vehicle could deliver
the Europa mission in just 4.7 years while still providing a healthy mass
margin of 34%.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(For Falcon Heavy fans,
NASA’s managers will consider this booster, too, once they have its final
specifications, but they believe it would have similar performance to the Delta
IV Heavy.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This new launch backup is not yet an official plan as engineers and
NASA’s managers examine it in more detail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If they decide they can adopt it, the net savings in flight time if the
SLS launch is unavailable is 2.7 years.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWDSNCNuv1OAdpafUMTIFL3spcEdGzbdIkA8g-6UHzOom6siiEM7lyhBsH-o7oHUB5JWWUuOKANrRlml_O3LITBjMhiD33tAJ5bmcgGSfBA6vlGU83eOXMg9JQGulcJ-FA_4D8Y9ZS5Tg/s1600/Possible+launch+plan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWDSNCNuv1OAdpafUMTIFL3spcEdGzbdIkA8g-6UHzOom6siiEM7lyhBsH-o7oHUB5JWWUuOKANrRlml_O3LITBjMhiD33tAJ5bmcgGSfBA6vlGU83eOXMg9JQGulcJ-FA_4D8Y9ZS5Tg/s400/Possible+launch+plan.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The current baseline plan for launching the Europa multiple flyby mission is the Space Launch System. A new backup plan under consideration could reduce the alternative flight from over seven years to less than five years. Credit: NASA/JPL</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Titan and Enceladus</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Ocean Worlds program now includes Saturn’s moons Titan and
Enceladus as target worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Previous
mission proposals were for either for expensive Flagship missions (with
estimated costs of ~$1.5 billion to ~$6 billion) or the inexpensive <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Discovery missions (~$450 million).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The former doesn’t fit within NASA’s budget
and the latter appears to be too little to reach and explore these distant
moons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the past few months, NASA’s
managers have opened up the intermediate cost (~$850 million) New Frontiers
mission class to explore these worlds.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRwu-b8A-eM1Jg2yaPV-fXNyDavSi6T8sS2S5aXVYE8Thl9-d9Z1bi5CGUZBnV3Gf9py1sVxbSENG9gfknfuam-tWUvMvmGPVOBDNMgznt3pXRLfdR2qQeKRa0JcVq-j2gzgZTlSslLfk/s1600/Overall+Titan+Enceladus+Goals.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRwu-b8A-eM1Jg2yaPV-fXNyDavSi6T8sS2S5aXVYE8Thl9-d9Z1bi5CGUZBnV3Gf9py1sVxbSENG9gfknfuam-tWUvMvmGPVOBDNMgznt3pXRLfdR2qQeKRa0JcVq-j2gzgZTlSslLfk/s400/Overall+Titan+Enceladus+Goals.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Science objectives for Enceladus and Titan presented by Dr. Green. Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">At the CAPS meeting, Green presented draft science objectives for a
possible New Frontiers mission to Enceladus and/or Titan along with example
goals for measurements that would meet those objectives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Enceladus, the goals relate to
understanding the composition of the material within the plumes erupting from
the moon’s southern pole.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What are the
organic molecules in the plume detected by the Cassini spacecraft, but which
its instrument lacked the sensitivity to analyze in detail?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do these compounds suggest possible present
life or a geological origin from hydrological activity?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Does the chemistry suggest that the ocean
below the icy crust has the necessary chemicals to support life?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The goals for Titan mission broke into two sets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first related, as with Enceladus, to
questions of chemistry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How are complex
organic molecules created, modified, and stored in the upper and lower
atmosphere and in the surface lakes and seas?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Do any of these compounds suggest possible pre-biotic or even biotic
origin?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second set of goals focus on
the structure of the interior ocean (for example, is it in contact with the
silicate core that would provide many of the elements needed for life?) and
whether material from that ocean may have reached the surface (as evidenced by
past resurfacing).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Previous studies have looked at a number of mission concepts to
continue the exploration of these two moons following the Cassini mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the high end – and almost certainly
outside the cost cap of a New Frontiers mission – were Titan and Enceladus
orbiters and Titan balloons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the past two Discovery competitions, three missions to Enceladus and
Titan were proposed (but not selected to fly).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By law, NASA’s managers can’t reveal the results of their evaluations of
these proposals – that’s proprietary information for the proposing teams who
may well propose future missions in these competitive selections.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, comments by managers in public
meetings have said their science was compelling and that missions to the Saturn
system don’t fit within the cost cap of the Discovery program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The implication is that the higher mission
costs allowed by the New Frontiers program could enable a mission to the Saturn
system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These past proposals for
Discovery-class missions suggest possible New Frontiers-class missions to these
worlds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Two of the Discovery proposals replaced orbiters with spacecraft that
would – like the Europa multiple flyby mission –that would study these
Saturnian moons with multiple flybys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/meetings/feb2015/presentations/18_OPAG_2015_Lunine.pdf">The
Enceladus Life Mission (ELF)</a> would have flown through Enceladus’ plumes
with two cutting edge mass spectrometers that would have studied the chemistry
of the ocean’s volatiles and silicates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The <a href="http://lcpm10.caltech.edu/pdf/session-5/3_JET-LCPM-130618-Matousek-final.pdf">Journey
to Enceladus and Titan (JET)</a> would have carried a mass spectrometer to
study the volatiles in the plumes and Titan’s upper atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It would also have carried a thermal imaging
camera that would have imaged Titan’s surface at up to an order of magnitude
higher resolution (as fine as 25 m) than the Cassini spacecraft has done.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The imager would also have imaged the sources
of the plumes on Enceladus’ surface in much higher resolution than Cassini has.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A possible New Frontiers proposal might combine the ELF and JET
proposals by carrying ELF’s mass spectrometers and JET’s thermal imager and
conduct multiple flybys of Enceladus and Titan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Such a mission could address the composition questions posed by Green
for Enceladus and Titan’s upper atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The thermal imager could address the questions of whether Titan’s
surface morphology indicates that the subsurface ocean has interacted with
Titan’s surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Possible enhancements to this type of mission might include an ice
penetrating radar to study the subsurface structures of their icy shells.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or the thermal imager could be enhanced by
adding an imaging spectrometer that would search for variations in the surface
composition of Titan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both of these
latter ideas have been included in previous, Flagship-class mission proposals
and would address the goal to better understand the structure of the interior
oceans and their interaction with the surface.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Both Discovery proposals included high speed flybys of Enceladus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While these flybys are relatively easy to set
up, the velocity (typically ~4 kilometers per second) could destroy any highly
complex organic molecules as they impact the mass spectrometer
instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One mission option would
instead use a number of flybys of the moons Rhea, Dione, and Tethys to lower
the orbit over two years to enable Enceladus flybys at ~1 kilometer per
second.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Affording the additional costs
of two years of mission operations likely is hard in a Discovery mission
proposal but might be an option that could fit within a New Frontiers budget.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The third Discovery proposal, the <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/meetings/mar2012/presentations/Friday/1_TiME_opag.pdf">Titan
Mare Explorer (TiME)</a>, would have landed a probe to float on one of the
moon’s large polar seas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These lakes are
believed to be stews that absorb and release gases into the atmosphere, receive
a rain of complex organic molecules created in the upper atmosphere, and
interact with the ices forming the shores and bottoms of the lakes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A future mission could replicate TiME’s goal
to study Titan’s chemistry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The TiME
proposed mission focused tightly on science conducted on a lake. A plusher New
Frontiers mission might add instruments that could enhance atmospheric
composition measurements as the probe descends to a lake landing as was proposed
for a Flagship version of this mission several years back.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There is no assurance that an Ocean Worlds mission
will be selected as the next New Frontiers mission, which will launch in the
mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These missions are selected
through open competitions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The other
missions on the candidate list – a Venus lander, lunar sample return, comet
sample return, a Saturn atmospheric probe, and Trojan asteroid tour – are scientifically
compelling in their own right and several may be less risky and expensive to
implement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We should learn which mission
is selected in 2019.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">On a side note, not discussed at the CAPS meeting
(at least while I was listening), is the question of international cooperation
in exploring Titan and Enceladus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An
obvious idea would be to combine the Titan lake lander with the multi-flyby
spacecraft that could act as carrier and data relay in addition to its own
scientific duties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fitting both within a
New Frontiers budget seems unlikely to me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, other space agencies, particularly ESA, are also interested in
exploring these worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It may be
possible that NASA would provide one craft within a New Frontiers budget while
another space agency provides the complimentary craft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timing the funding for cooperative missions
can get tricky (as shown by the inability of ESA to pay for a Europa mission
free flyer on NASA’s schedule), but it is an obvious idea that I’m sure will be
explored.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGL-Rxqw7k2aSsMJ3WlxSxWXMk63RL5Ozysgx-ujwLimb6zHXs_J-Oz-mXzucHyuyo-xBo6_2moA9Ct3iTrDNqHqmXg1LtfDoV58Pe0QYz2nEgaUCB89rSXppvrNOB_7XaFTKNqO5CCnk/s1600/Example+Titan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGL-Rxqw7k2aSsMJ3WlxSxWXMk63RL5Ozysgx-ujwLimb6zHXs_J-Oz-mXzucHyuyo-xBo6_2moA9Ct3iTrDNqHqmXg1LtfDoV58Pe0QYz2nEgaUCB89rSXppvrNOB_7XaFTKNqO5CCnk/s400/Example+Titan.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Examples measurements a New Frontiers mission to Enceladus or Titan might make to meet the science goals. Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">An Ocean
Worlds Lander</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition to providing an update to the Europa
multiple flyby mission, JPL’s Goldstein provided the first public look at the
current concept for a Europa lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
the normal progression of exploring a world, NASA would not look at detailed
plans for lander until the results from a mission orbiting that world (replaced
with multiple flybys for Europa) were in.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, Congress has directed NASA to add a lander to the currently
planned Europa mission.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">JPL’s engineers have decided to make the lander an
entirely separate spacecraft from the multi-flyby spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To find the spot on this moon that best
combines scientific value and landing safety, the multi-flyby spacecraft must
first complete its examination of the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As a result, a landing would come at least two to three years after the
arrival of the multi-flyby spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
lander spacecraft could either launch with the multi-flyby spacecraft and park
itself in Jovian orbit while waiting for the reconnaissance to be complete or the
lander could be launch later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(I’m
betting on the latter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s Green
described the current design state of the lander concept as “immature” and it’s
not clear that NASA will receive sufficient time or funding to mature the
design in time for launch with the multi-flyby spacecraft.)</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFASI68C37tRkPlnf3_vddv5hn3tc2qxbjD2alqTx1Fn1M3g8rI7TCyEfH9ydpdYTG-fItyV3rwxUYFwEk0L3QAzLR-eAcpVeOHZL6_UkVxJ663-k2aF1fBlcsFicNzpqoNVzaxMDPE-Q/s1600/Europa+lander+mission.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFASI68C37tRkPlnf3_vddv5hn3tc2qxbjD2alqTx1Fn1M3g8rI7TCyEfH9ydpdYTG-fItyV3rwxUYFwEk0L3QAzLR-eAcpVeOHZL6_UkVxJ663-k2aF1fBlcsFicNzpqoNVzaxMDPE-Q/s400/Europa+lander+mission.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A Europa lander, whose design could be used for landing on other ocean worlds, would consist of four major elements, a carrier craft that would also relay the lander's data, a solid rocket motor to slow the lander, a sky crane descent stage, and the lander itself.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The lander itself would look much like and be about
the size of the Mars Pathfinder that landed on the Red planet in 1997 (but
without the Pathfinder’s small rover).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The lander would be encased in petals that would deploy, allowing the lander
to right itself if necessary after touchdown and that could also act as
“snowshoes” in case the landing is on a soft surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A mass spectrometer and a Raman spectrometer
would study the composition of the surface material, panoramic and microscopic cameras
would provide context and close up images, and a geophone would provide seismic
measurements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The lander would include
an arm that could scoop or drill samples from the surface to deliver to the
instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Batteries would power the
lander for up to 21 days.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-Xg-QWHpBV_unB9MUgmiffiE9X83Da871qID2vzPMtKJwTu7X7tk73ky8o1PSdgXzGhxlNTQqLysj7MrZMdPJa_qp5hXSqugCKtrVJRj4KHoRRAYkxrEjVS10n3J7IT_fQfwIoDH1q-w/s1600/1280px-mars_pathfinder_lander_preparations.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-Xg-QWHpBV_unB9MUgmiffiE9X83Da871qID2vzPMtKJwTu7X7tk73ky8o1PSdgXzGhxlNTQqLysj7MrZMdPJa_qp5hXSqugCKtrVJRj4KHoRRAYkxrEjVS10n3J7IT_fQfwIoDH1q-w/s400/1280px-mars_pathfinder_lander_preparations.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The proposed Europa lander would look much like and be roughly the same size as the Mars Pathfinder lander (bottom). Credit: NASA/JPL</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">While the initial target for this lander design is
Europa, Goldstein pointed out that the design could be used to land on a number
of ocean worlds including Enceladus and Jupiter’s Ganymede.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(As discussed above, a Titan lander will need
enter and descend through a thick atmosphere and then float on a sea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its design is likely to be quite different.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps, if the funding gods are kind, we
could see both multiple flyby missions to these moons and landers for these
moons launch in the next decade or two.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Additional Material</b></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfzULWwe23UTCXpy9t2do4y1AV5jCkAjYxQasFIUzeMCF6ip3IBkSXAdXYPXSUhHegHgS3RhTUCsm-jpO5-7_5uqEhxM4V0uV_oEPcyDFyRebEH3DS2PEMXIHdvO2h9y8dkaBGG4Gwp40/s1600/Current+launch+plan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfzULWwe23UTCXpy9t2do4y1AV5jCkAjYxQasFIUzeMCF6ip3IBkSXAdXYPXSUhHegHgS3RhTUCsm-jpO5-7_5uqEhxM4V0uV_oEPcyDFyRebEH3DS2PEMXIHdvO2h9y8dkaBGG4Gwp40/s400/Current+launch+plan.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Current launch plans for the Europa multiple flyby mission. Credit: NASA/JPL.</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGlXTNS28jCSxbH0767qryZMkntUQkmJZ7wBWh06lBgUpGkyThai1JjICm4dZt34rA2F4RwVqidB1vbBEpWbp2BBFdJA5woEyIwyQCShJSIDqJ6kJ0o1KwbbzE5nkJiiz1MrZUbHN9a8g/s1600/JET+coverage.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGlXTNS28jCSxbH0767qryZMkntUQkmJZ7wBWh06lBgUpGkyThai1JjICm4dZt34rA2F4RwVqidB1vbBEpWbp2BBFdJA5woEyIwyQCShJSIDqJ6kJ0o1KwbbzE5nkJiiz1MrZUbHN9a8g/s400/JET+coverage.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The proposed multiple flyby tour of Titan and Enceladus for the Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET) mission (top) and the ground tracks below each flyby (top panel of bottom slide) and the imaging resolution for Titan and the height of the flyby through the plumes for Enceladus. Credit: JPL</span></td></tr>
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Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-2835488587347124672016-03-17T21:17:00.001-07:002016-03-17T21:17:51.890-07:00Challenges to Enabling a Richer Planetary Exploration Program<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This week has brought to the fore two challenges for NASA’s managers as
they try to enable the richest possible mix of coming planetary missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At stake are whether the agency will be able
to select two (the default is one) Discovery missions from the current
competition, and whether there will be the possibility of a mission selected
for Enceladus and/or Titan in the next decade.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When I write these blog posts, it is always more fun to write about the
exciting science or clever engineering solutions than to write about
policy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Often, however, the richness of
NASA’s planetary science program hangs on questions of management and policy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Can NASA’s managers find the flexibility in
spending to allow the selection of two Discovery missions?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Can they find a way to incorporate new
scientific discoveries and a changed political landscape (a new Congressional
mandate) in between Decadal Surveys?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This is not glamorous stuff, but it is the essential background to what
missions we’ll see in the coming decade.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Discovery question probably is the simpler because it likely “only”
involves solving a $150M or so problem.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
this low cost ($450M) program, the space agency is currently conducting a competition
among five finalist mission proposals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These competitions are expensive to conduct and arduous for both the
agency and the proposers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result,
NASA’s managers would like stage the competitions no more frequently than
approximately every four years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To
increase the number of missions flown, the agency would like to select two
missions that would be launched two years apart, allowing a total of five
launches in the coming decade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(This
plan assumes that each competition provides at least two proposals that after
extreme scrutiny are scientifically compelling, technically feasible, and can
be done within the cost cap.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It also
assumes that the currently planned future budgets are provided by future
Presidents and Congresses.)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAIyLqMr28ra2hxhUeEOfa40_eHJB_8_NvGZEj35ULLm8v1i8pgyefQzSTyv8gJIz4BO2VSpNLJtEqu0xmETJoJTUhdyc4sv2gSaJENv2BRrOGsSAS72nXuqJjXaOBimPLJPSh4ApiXFo/s1600/Discovery+finalists.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAIyLqMr28ra2hxhUeEOfa40_eHJB_8_NvGZEj35ULLm8v1i8pgyefQzSTyv8gJIz4BO2VSpNLJtEqu0xmETJoJTUhdyc4sv2gSaJENv2BRrOGsSAS72nXuqJjXaOBimPLJPSh4ApiXFo/s400/Discovery+finalists.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the current Discovery competition, NASA’s managers will select one
or two missions from among three asteroid and two Venus mission proposals. Credit: NASA</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The wrench in this plan is the two-year delay in the previously selected
Discovery mission, the InSight Martian geophysical station.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As you’ve probably heard, the key instrument
for this mission wasn’t ready in time to allow the planned launch this
year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, under a just announced
new plan, the mission will lift off in 2018 when Earth and Mars next align for
launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result of the delay, the costs
of launch and operating the mission that had been planned for the next two
years are pushed out to 2018 to 2020.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This is when NASA wants to start development on the next one or two Discovery
missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, a substantial
group of engineers and scientists need to be paid from now until launch in 2018
to fix the instrument problem and retain the core group needed to prepare the
mission for launch and flight. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When NASA’s director for its planetary science program, Jim Green,
announced the new InSight plan at a recent meeting, one of the earliest
questions was whether or not this meant that NASA would still be able to select
two Discovery missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/nasa-mars-woes-could-delay-other-planetary-missions-1.19549">article
on the journal Nature’s website</a> poses the same question. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA has not formally released an estimate of the additional costs
required under the new plan, saying that those figures will be available this
coming August.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At a recent meeting, the
InSight mission’s principal investigator stated that flying the mission later
would cost $150M.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s not clear from
his statement what all is included in that figure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA had ~$150M budgeted for InSight for the
next two years to cover launch and mission operations. Those costs will
need to be shifted out two years. There will also be new costs for the
2016-2017 period to fix the instrument and to keep the core team together, and
it’s not clear if this spending is included in the $150M estimate.</span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
Because the federal budget operates on a cash basis, any money not spent in the
current fiscal year returns to the treasury. So NASA can't simply bank
the money it had planned to spend in 2016-2017 and spend it two years
later. The agency’s managers may have some flexibility, though, subject
to many rules that I don’t pretend to understand in any detail:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA may be able to sign long term contracts with an outside company or
organization (which would include the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is
developing and will later operate the InSight mission).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In some cases, money committed to a
contractor counts as spent by the government when the contract is signed but
the contractor can spend the transferred money later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA’s managers may be able to shift money among projects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, they might be able to spend
money in the next two years originally earmarked for InSight on the Mars 2020
rover project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then in 2018-2019, the
agency might be able to spend money originally planned for the rover on
InSight. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The $150M is less than half of what NASA is projected to be spending on
Discovery mission development per year by the end of the decade. In
theory, delaying the start of the next Discovery mission(s) by around six
months might solve the cash flow problem and allow the selection of two
Discovery missions. Jim Green has said that mission timing will be
crucial, and all the teams currently in the Discovery competition have been
asked to identify alternative launch dates.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I am convinced that NASA’s managers would like to fly InSight and
select two new Discovery missions if fiscally possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The kinds of options that I've mentioned
above probably just scratch the surface on the kinds of ideas they are
exploring.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We will know more when NASA’s
managers release the final budget plan for InSight this August and when they
announce in late this year whether or not they selected one or two new
Discovery missions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the meantime, veteran space reporter <a href="https://twitter.com/jeff_foust/status/707586205181812736">Jeff Foust has
tweeted</a> that Science Mission Directorate head John Grunsfeld (Jim Green’s
boss) told him that the option to select two missions is still on the table.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We can hope that he and his managers find a
solution to select two.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The other problem, how to enable missions to Saturn’s moons Titan and
Enceladus may not have such a clean path to a resolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A spate of new discoveries have raised
interest in exploring these worlds as possible abodes of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These discoveries caught the attention of key
members of Congress who have directed NASA to establish an Ocean Worlds program
to explore these two moons along with Europa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(There are other ocean moons in the outer solar system, but they are
less likely to be abodes of life or would be harder to explore.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Congressional mandate directed NASA to explore these worlds through
a mixture of low-cost (Discovery program), medium cost (New Frontiers program, ~$850M),
and high cost (Flagship, >$1B) missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Planning for a Europa mission with a Flagship mission is underway
(although there’s no agreement on when the mission should launch).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA is left to find a way to send new missions
to Titan and Enceladus to fulfill the Congressional mandate.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Unfortunately, neither of these moons was highly ranked as targets by
the most recent Decadal Survey, which represents the consensus of the
scientific community on exploration targets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Europa was highly ranked.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Survey examined missions to land on the lakes of Titan and decided that the
scientific return for the estimated approximately $1B cost was not high
enough.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A mission to orbit Titan, land
on a lake, and fly a balloon was estimated at an astronomical cost of $6.7B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mission concepts, primarily orbiters, were
examined for Enceladus, found to be expensive at $1.9B and were not a priority
at that cost.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Fortunately, mission concepts such as multi-flyby spacecraft instead of
more expensive orbiters have been more fully developed, giving mission planners
lower cost options.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In recent
competitions for Discovery missions, two teams have proposed multi-flyby missions
to fly through Enceladus’ plumes to search for clues to habitability and in one
of the proposals to also map Titan’s surface at higher resolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A third team proposed a lander for a Titan
lake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All of these proposals were for
missions at a fraction the cost of the Decadal Survey cost estimates for
similar (but to be fair, more capable) missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Unfortunately, per a comment by Green at a recent meeting, while these Discovery
missions proposed compelling science, they were judged by reviewers of being
unlikely to fit within the Discovery cost cap.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Green implied that similar missions could fit within the New Frontiers
budget cap (further implying costs substantially lower than their Decadal
Survey cost estimates).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Given NASA’s current budget level and missions in development, the
agency has no ability to add another major Flagship mission to the queue of
missions before the mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That
leaves NASA’s New Frontiers program as the only potential home for an Enceladus
and/or Titan mission in the next ten years or so.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there’s a problem using this program,
too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While Discovery proposals can
target any world in the solar system except the Earth and sun, candidate
missions for the New Frontiers program competitions were pre-selected by the
Decadal Survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The list was carefully
examined to ensure that the missions are scientifically compelling, affordable,
and balance the wide interests of planetary scientists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because NASA is mandated to follow the
Decadal Survey in setting its priorities, the list of recommended missions
carries weight.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One purpose of the list
is to prevent teams from lobbying outside the Decadal Survey for their favorite
New Frontiers candidates to NASA’s senior managers and Congress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(There’s no mechanism to prevent Congress
from imposing its favorites on NASA, though.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK6BUKF7LIc8LDXBuA1BXyUQ6JlWYCeN8mDhOxQuf2UXp4ady06j8rXWpe2bzGBvLwlpzxaEnx81luM9Txh4VBsd9L5qffUQVDjrvAKHHQfVxwr_uZOoBj1JVYamF9nMo_scGmui9UaS0/s1600/New+Frontiers+4+candidates.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK6BUKF7LIc8LDXBuA1BXyUQ6JlWYCeN8mDhOxQuf2UXp4ady06j8rXWpe2bzGBvLwlpzxaEnx81luM9Txh4VBsd9L5qffUQVDjrvAKHHQfVxwr_uZOoBj1JVYamF9nMo_scGmui9UaS0/s400/New+Frontiers+4+candidates.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">For the fourth New Frontiers competition that is in its initial stages, the Decadal Survey reports said that a mission should be selected among these candidates. Credit: NASA</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYQM4_rrLJZqv9-dtqOxvVm-Zrd-H0WrFGrhsNJBEbUeNjLkMDpsM1QdZxu1PFAgNO4xkc5ArIXn6vnwakKa559-ey-4e99XpwMVrzdMv5bEzQCbUtYuWGS_3QZPYAF6F0JK6z8GRChlU/s1600/Additional+New+Frontiers+5+candidates.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYQM4_rrLJZqv9-dtqOxvVm-Zrd-H0WrFGrhsNJBEbUeNjLkMDpsM1QdZxu1PFAgNO4xkc5ArIXn6vnwakKa559-ey-4e99XpwMVrzdMv5bEzQCbUtYuWGS_3QZPYAF6F0JK6z8GRChlU/s400/Additional+New+Frontiers+5+candidates.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">For the fifth New Frontiers competition, currently planned for the early 2020s, the Decadal Survey recommended that two additional missions be added to the list of candidate missions.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA has just begun the process of starting the competition to select
the next New Frontiers mission from among the candidates, with a target launch
in the mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The agency’s managers
decided to add a mission to Enceladus and/or Titan to the list of candidate
missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many scientists within the planetary
community are not happy with this addition.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Last week, I listened in on the first day a meeting (the Planetary Science
Subcommittee) of senior scientists discussing the issue with Jim Green.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their main objections boiled down to several
points:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The New Frontiers current list was developed by the entire community
and NASA’s managers should not arbitrarily change it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At a minimum, the addition should be vetted
before the mid-term Decadal Survey review planned for next year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Doing otherwise undermines the credibility of
the Decadal Surveys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Green’s response
was that given the timing of the Congressional mandate and the planned start
for the next New Frontiers competition, a discussion in the mid-term review
wasn’t feasible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was either now or
wait for yet the next New Frontiers competition that would start in the early
2020’s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Green’s words, the timing of
the mandate sucked because it limited his ability to consult with the broader
scientific community before having to tell the community what missions they could
propose for the competition.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Many are concerned that rather than being an open competition, an Ocean
World’s selection is pre-determined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There’s no point to teams proposing the other candidate missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Green’s response was that NASA will run a clean
competition.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Why these two moons and not Pluto or the asteroid Ceres where there
have also been exciting new discoveries?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Green’s response was that there are no credible New Frontiers-class
follow up Pluto missions and teams have yet to propose cost-capped Ceres
missions, but he expects them in the future.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">At this meeting, scientists reported on discussions in analysis groups
representing specific planetary science disciplines.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps predictably, the report for the outer
planets group was enthusiastic about the addition while reports for the small
bodies and Venus groups – which have candidate New Frontiers missions – were
troubled to upset by the addition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Mars group – which has no New Frontiers candidates – was silent on the topic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The report from the lunar group – which has
two candidate missions – was also silent on this topic, but this group meets
the least frequently of the analysis groups and simply may not have had a
chance to caucus and decide either way.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As the discussion on adding Enceladus and Titan to the New Frontiers
candidate list continued, it became more nuanced.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A few of the scientists wondered if an
Enceladus/Titan proposal would be competitive given the lack of a mature list
of scientific questions and design concepts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Decadal Survey carefully defined the scientific goals for the
missions on its candidate list.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
addition, most of the missions on the New Frontiers candidate list have been
proposed before or have similar Discovery proposals to draw on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Green noted that Enceladus/Titan proposals
would also have Discovery proposals to draw on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He said that NASA was working on a plan to define the scientific goals
for an Enceladus/Titan mission for this competition.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Green also talked more about NASA’s choices in response to the
Congressional mandate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>NASA’s managers
could decide to consider a mission to these moons to be a strategic mandate
outside of the Decadal Survey’s recommendations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The agency is planning for a Mars orbiter in
the early 2020’s as a strategic mission to provide a communications relay to
future missions, follow up on scientific questions raised since the last
decadal survey, and prepare for future human missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a similar vein – and this is my
speculation and wasn’t raised by Green – the agency could decide to substitute
the selection of a planned New Frontiers competition in the early 2020s for a
strategic Ocean Worlds mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead,
the agency has chosen to add a mission to the Saturn’s moons to the New
Frontiers candidate list where it must beat out five other candidates on
compelling science, feasibility, and cost.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA’s managers take the advice of the planetary science community
seriously.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are actively seeking the
response to their decision to add Ocean Worlds to the New Frontiers program
(and at the same time selling their proposed solution).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>No one in the meeting I listened to stated that they questioned the scientific importance of Enceladus and Titan. However, several would appeared to believe that these two worlds should compete in the next Decadal Survey (to be released in the early 2020s) for a place as prioritized missions. NASA's managers are arguing that the time is now to recognize their priority. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span><br /><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This
is a conversation likely to take at least a few weeks if not months to play out. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As I said at the beginning of this post, these issues aren’t
glamorous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are simply the nuts and
bolts issues NASA’s managers face as they work to create the richest possible
program of planetary exploration within the resources the President’s budget
office and Congress provide them.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Appendix: At the Planetary Sciences Subcommittee meeting, NASA's Jim Green presented these slides to make his case that and Enceladus/Titan mission should be added to the New Frontiers candidate list. The final slide is from the Small Bodies Analysis Group (SBAG) arguing that any addition should be made follow a review by senior members of the planetary science community. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2tOPqwhykWl4FIT8VhOEXlJ3fbK-rKMIsYprtM8b9hnqWH_TvqqsFGZFeoEdZ1QuMIjzIXSFvb0deUpze7xt1y71JTx1jjePZ6mgA0AydRUVSPRQ8zy0W9AFa2bCeOYmHTT73pI6W1oQ/s1600/Congressional+language.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2tOPqwhykWl4FIT8VhOEXlJ3fbK-rKMIsYprtM8b9hnqWH_TvqqsFGZFeoEdZ1QuMIjzIXSFvb0deUpze7xt1y71JTx1jjePZ6mgA0AydRUVSPRQ8zy0W9AFa2bCeOYmHTT73pI6W1oQ/s400/Congressional+language.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Congressional language directing the creation of an Ocean Worlds program that would include Enceladus and Titan.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx57h-_1h6S1ksRkOZjXMoGgJhx60CdDz2ydXuisyv3P8hA_9vSCEnrNWh2C3pcA9s-SyZ3m7EOAlz0kh63GcWBGZJ477umGpE6EdJFYbVkHmT-3zbzu3DlgNRR3nP7N0VoZ3w1Kwrdss/s1600/Enceladus+discoveries.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="286" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx57h-_1h6S1ksRkOZjXMoGgJhx60CdDz2ydXuisyv3P8hA_9vSCEnrNWh2C3pcA9s-SyZ3m7EOAlz0kh63GcWBGZJ477umGpE6EdJFYbVkHmT-3zbzu3DlgNRR3nP7N0VoZ3w1Kwrdss/s400/Enceladus+discoveries.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Key discoveries at Enceladus since the priorities for the last Decadal Survey (in its Visions and Voyages (V&V)) priorities were set.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXs3svg5pS51MnqZysfiFyQxq3aOrEgo5ghM97dNY6kCrfvdhe4m6sydbbV8BPQY_0X6RAoqtPB9-o_dsljE6USr46LIFwqHFjdFd1dqMVtMC-OzHCsteS_1Gf96LWyG4AxrEIAx9hDvw/s1600/Enceladus+discoveries+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXs3svg5pS51MnqZysfiFyQxq3aOrEgo5ghM97dNY6kCrfvdhe4m6sydbbV8BPQY_0X6RAoqtPB9-o_dsljE6USr46LIFwqHFjdFd1dqMVtMC-OzHCsteS_1Gf96LWyG4AxrEIAx9hDvw/s400/Enceladus+discoveries+2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">More Enceladus discoveries</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjivJx7mQs9Rcj7CGSyatm7enMlNuqVzd4VRorrR7jVQXC4LPQ9jk_bKEpzIrvy9njT_lO86PGKHpxZvVzwIn9sXnpIwTKEVUokNtvGRnUEAC-sz7wlmzRi1uiL03_UC8MRNNy58T5U4HQ/s1600/Titan+discoveries.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjivJx7mQs9Rcj7CGSyatm7enMlNuqVzd4VRorrR7jVQXC4LPQ9jk_bKEpzIrvy9njT_lO86PGKHpxZvVzwIn9sXnpIwTKEVUokNtvGRnUEAC-sz7wlmzRi1uiL03_UC8MRNNy58T5U4HQ/s400/Titan+discoveries.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Titan discoveries.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJq52ss4QY5QTNOX3nJQVnftXyE86lEwZq4uDtB7WrXURbPafRBAIEG0hyvqk8227JA2e5pygXwnxPWyKcrsj-yIyObA-Lr5SnnVYvKiT_BBs3jub0je4TypQO1sSFSIuyMdq0aquh02k/s1600/SBAG.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJq52ss4QY5QTNOX3nJQVnftXyE86lEwZq4uDtB7WrXURbPafRBAIEG0hyvqk8227JA2e5pygXwnxPWyKcrsj-yIyObA-Lr5SnnVYvKiT_BBs3jub0je4TypQO1sSFSIuyMdq0aquh02k/s400/SBAG.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">SBAG's statement on how new candidate missions should be added.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-26395717463299792192016-02-16T19:08:00.000-08:002016-02-16T19:08:11.726-08:00Proposed 2017 planetary budget: Great except for Europa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQmJtImB7GDJq-GLvgE040WCGjI3iWG61R6F2_3eXXIxKjzOsGcLDGCfGnRZNjc2uRpU6bCmXFKPutrEQz9gqm9guTtSYXf6PjkIrmmnjpTIdQAagayKGD8D2STnklkUcyuClDxwKZeAI/s1600/NASA+planetary+mission+portfolio.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
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Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It’s clear that the President’s budget officers really don’t want to
fund a mission to Europa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other than
that, the proposed Fiscal Year 2017 budget submitted by the President last week to Congress would be great for planetary exploration.</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The submission of the Fiscal Year 2017 proposed budget is just the
opening move in getting to what will be NASA’s actual budget for next
year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposal itself is the result
of negotiations between the budget managers in the President’s Office of Budget
Management and the space agency’s senior managers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most of the proposed NASA budget is a simple
continuation of the 2016 budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the
few areas like Europa where the administration and Congress differ on policy,
though, there are significant changes from this year’s budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the next step in the process, committees
in the House of Representatives and the Senate will make changes to portions of
the budget to reflect their priorities and then will negotiate their
differences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eventually a spending bill
will be passed and signed by the President.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQmJtImB7GDJq-GLvgE040WCGjI3iWG61R6F2_3eXXIxKjzOsGcLDGCfGnRZNjc2uRpU6bCmXFKPutrEQz9gqm9guTtSYXf6PjkIrmmnjpTIdQAagayKGD8D2STnklkUcyuClDxwKZeAI/s1600/NASA+planetary+mission+portfolio.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQmJtImB7GDJq-GLvgE040WCGjI3iWG61R6F2_3eXXIxKjzOsGcLDGCfGnRZNjc2uRpU6bCmXFKPutrEQz9gqm9guTtSYXf6PjkIrmmnjpTIdQAagayKGD8D2STnklkUcyuClDxwKZeAI/s400/NASA+planetary+mission+portfolio.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The proposed NASA planetary exploration budget would fund a fleet of
current and planned missions include Discovery and New Frontiers missions
expected to be selected in the next few years and several CubeSat missions (latter
three not shown).</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Excepting Europa (more on this later), there’s a lot to like in the
proposed planetary budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following
successive years of cuts early in the decade and a gradual series of increases
to rebuild the program, the top number for the FY17 planetary program is
proposed to be $1.52 billion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the
proposed cut to the Europa mission studies, this number is down by $110 million
from this year’s FY16 budget. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The $1.52 billion would:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Fully fund the continued development of the 2020 Mars rover and support
the selection and development of new missions for the low-cost Discovery
program and the mid-cost New Frontiers program.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Fully fund all missions currently in flight or operating at their
target worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike the previous
couple of years, the budget doesn’t propose to end the Mars Opportunity rover
or the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter missions.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Provide slight increases for the programs that fund planetary science
research and develop technology to be used in future missions.</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">With the proposed budget, we should see a number of new planetary
missions launch in in the 2020s starting the launch of the ~$2.2 billion Mars
2020 rover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If the funding levels suggested for the beginning of the 2020s were
continued through the next decade, then NASA should be able to launch several
low-cost (~$450 million) Discovery missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The budget proposal specifically talks about the desire to select two
missions from the Discovery competition in progress to launch in 2021 and
2023.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The head of the Planetary Science
Division, Jim Green, has said he’d like to hold competitions approximately
every four years and select two missions from each competition, resulting in a
new mission approximately every two years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That would support the launch of around five Discovery missions in the
2020’s. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The budget supports the launch of a mid-cost (~$850 million) dollar New
Frontiers mission in the mid-2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr. Green has said that he and his managers
are planning for launches approximately every five years going forward, meaning
that we should see two missions fly in the 2020’s.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA also plans to regularly fly several low cost (a few million
dollars each) of the cereal box-sized CubeSat spacecraft to lunar and planetary
destinations.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The budget would also fully fund NASA’s contributions to the European Space
Agency’s 2016 ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, 2018 ExoMars rover, and the JUICE
Jupiter system mission that will arrive in the late 2020’s.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA has also talked about a new orbiter for Mars for the early 2020’s,
although the budget is silent on funding for this mission.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">And then there’s the Europa multi-flyby (previously called the Europa
Clipper) mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While previous Presidential
budget proposals have called for this mission to launch in the mid to late 2020’s,
this budget proposal seems to call for a possible delay in that vague schedule
by suggesting a “launch as early as the late 2020s”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposal ignores language in the FY16
budget law (which governs spending only for this year) inserted by Congress
directing NASA to launch the mission by 2022 (and that also directed NASA to
add a lander to the mission, which also is ignored in this new budget
proposal).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The stark difference between what the President’s budget proposes and
what would be needed to launch the Europa mission in 2022 is shown by the
numbers in the following table (both sets of numbers are provided in the budget
proposal document).</span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.0in;" valign="top" width="288">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">FY17</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">FY18</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">FY19</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">FY20</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">FY21</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.0in;" valign="top" width="288">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Proposed spending</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$ 49.6M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$ 24.2M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$ 65.2M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$117.5M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$236.5M</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.0in;" valign="top" width="288">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Required to launch in 2022</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$194.0M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$272.0M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$456.0M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$678.0M</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .7in;" valign="top" width="101">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">$482.0M</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Under the President’s proposal, $493 million would be spent on the
Europa mission through 2021 versus the $2.1 billion needed to keep the mission
on track to launch in 2022.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In political terms, pushing the mission’s launch out a dozen or more
years may be the equivalent of postponing it forever.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the mission to fly, it would need
continuous support from at least two more Presidential administrations and as
many as six to eight new Congresses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s
hard to imagine any mission sustaining support for that long.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s also hard to imagine how NASA could keep
a high caliber engineering and science team together for what might be fourteen
or more years (with a possible six or seven additional years of flight
following launch to arrive at Europa).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>On a very practical engineering level, many of the technologies
available to design into a mission today will be obsolete and no longer
available by the late 2020s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mission
design would need to be continuously tweaked to substitute new technologies.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Why might the President’s budget officials be opposed to the Europa
mission?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The explanation given in the proposal
document is that launching a Europa mission before the late 2020’s would lead
to an unbalanced planetary program that would not support the program laid out
in the last Decadal Survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
statement assumes that the cap on the total planetary budget would remain fixed
at around the $1.5 billion proposed for this year.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here are the possible explanations I’ve been able to think of for the
Administration’s lack of support for the Europa mission (the first two are
consistent with the explanation in the budget document):</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Delaying the Europa mission prevents a bulge in spending
requirements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the rest of this
decade, NASA’s new mission spending is dominated by the expensive Mars 2020
rover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The budget proposal also shows
sharp budget increases late in the decade for the Discovery and New Frontiers
programs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Launching the Europa mission
by 2022 as mandated by Congress would require either greatly increasing overall
planetary funding or cannibalizing other programs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Note: I would like to see a much larger
planetary budget.)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The budget officials (and perhaps NASA’s senior managers) prefer
cheaper Discovery and New Frontiers missions to the Flagship Europa
mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Experience has shown that large
Flagship mission are more likely to have large cost overruns that play havoc
with NASA’s budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Countering this, the
generous money that Congress has provided the mission so far as matured the
design much more than is typical at this stage of development.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That maturity makes cost overruns less
likely.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Europa isn’t Mars, and studying and eventually getting humans to Mars
is NASA’s current overriding goal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pure politics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several of the
Congressional leaders who are strongly backing the Europa mission and planetary
exploration in general are highly conservative politically.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While they favor spending more money on
planetary missions, they also want to cut funding for missions for NASA to
study the Earth, especially climate change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Essentially proposing to push out the launch of a Europa mission to
forever may be part of a hardball negotiating tactic to trade more funding for
the Europa mission for also fully funding the President’s generous proposed
budget for Earth science missions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">At the moment, we are left with the Europa mission as a formally
approved mission on NASA’s books with an engineering and science team, a
selected suite of instruments, and no target launch date.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The interesting politics will be whether or
not Congress forces the addition of the many hundreds of millions of dollars
into NASA’s planetary budget over the next several years needed to launch as
early as 2022 without cannibalizing other planetary programs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(For more on this, see <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2016/01/europa-budget-bulge.html">this
previous blog post</a>.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Europa mission isn’t the only areas in which the Administration and
Congress disagree on NASA budget and policy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While outside the scope of this blog post, they also disagree on the
amount that should be spent on Earth science (as noted above), developing
commercial launch capabilities, and developing the Orion and Space Launch
System programs. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Outside of these areas, though, there is a consensus on spending
levels, and the final budget is likely to be similar to the proposed budget.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/NASA%20FY2017%20budget%20request%20Feb%2012%202016.pdf">SpacePolicyOnline</a>
has a very good summary of the overall NASA budget and areas where the
Administration and Congress are likely to disagree.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the planetary program, <a href="http://www.planetary.org/blogs/casey-dreier/2016/0209-first-details-of-nasas-fy2017-budget-request.html">Casey
Dreier at the Planetary Society</a> has good commentary on the proposed
planetary budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Budget Details</u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Each budget proposal comes in two parts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first proposes spending for the next
fiscal year (FY17 in this case) and is the starting point for the eventual law
allocating funding for the next year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The second part projects notional funding for four additional years
(FY18 to FY21 in this case).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
notional budgets are not acted on by Congress, but provide agencies with
guidance for future years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For agencies
like NASA whose projects typically take several years to implement, these
notional budgets take on particular importance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The agency cannot issue multi-year contracts that are inconsistent with
the notional out year budgets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
creates a problem if, for example, Congress provides generous funding for the
Europa mission next year but the notional budgets are inconsistent with the
necessary multi-year contracts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The numbers for the following charts come from NASA’s budget documents
except as noted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrxGlOwdGeI5xYdPudbF6mGeVfgpedzEJgW2d9KRG-n86_2XeLeZJUi9heIq7_CMLOSQTy4r1ahEZDns1MWwBLPmjKQQysklRbCGMpoPFJpxc9_DHwg5LL5b30uFMVe28G95ynF5VtvRY/s1600/Science+programs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrxGlOwdGeI5xYdPudbF6mGeVfgpedzEJgW2d9KRG-n86_2XeLeZJUi9heIq7_CMLOSQTy4r1ahEZDns1MWwBLPmjKQQysklRbCGMpoPFJpxc9_DHwg5LL5b30uFMVe28G95ynF5VtvRY/s400/Science+programs.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The FY17 budget proposal projects a onetime significant increase in the
Earth Science budget to pull in development of the next Landsat Earth observing
satellite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dip in planetary science
funding comes primarily from proposed reductions in funding for the Europa
mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Otherwise, the budget proposal
shows relatively flat projected budgets for NASA’s science budgets.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglgmVCAcY6Oi5U0HHSYBVtL6v58KjqcMJV9lYpktOerknIA0lrZEUY0gBR1wcWOjAgTz9ne72uFRrBjFMZ4uADG3oDmQKz8vxAemT5mRMn13PK6JbK-i17YtKf_-P59luA9jmaNgCNrMo/s1600/Proposal+history.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglgmVCAcY6Oi5U0HHSYBVtL6v58KjqcMJV9lYpktOerknIA0lrZEUY0gBR1wcWOjAgTz9ne72uFRrBjFMZ4uADG3oDmQKz8vxAemT5mRMn13PK6JbK-i17YtKf_-P59luA9jmaNgCNrMo/s400/Proposal+history.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This chart shows projected budgets for budget proposals since 2010
(which proposed the FY11 spending) compared to actual allocated budgets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the first several years of the decade,
the budgets proposed reduced planetary spending, reflected in cuts in actual
spending.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the FY14 budget
proposal, projected budgets have been increasing.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-B8_YSgCTJw7XFdtHVwkO5D9-b2o9gkMlM87X1fuVT-QeJY6F8iPAwRIZrHldwpWKeArEg50eNDTeG5q418BQyLuNO4PAhcQKGAw58zMA1rZ_Ew7nOqVlSkB-GBrDrspZ3TrxjAJvZsw/s1600/Planetary+mission+programs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-B8_YSgCTJw7XFdtHVwkO5D9-b2o9gkMlM87X1fuVT-QeJY6F8iPAwRIZrHldwpWKeArEg50eNDTeG5q418BQyLuNO4PAhcQKGAw58zMA1rZ_Ew7nOqVlSkB-GBrDrspZ3TrxjAJvZsw/s400/Planetary+mission+programs.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKWUhO3HAJ2R91zwvt5UIMdTPBtcZyJVl0EHrYCiyVq4UGcnXBzNQGC0ZySjVbQKtz4pl00A1Hf9jlmxpl1yCID23aRXkfetpuV_x6b6z72bErT9BIkYHcnyA932t_ORlwS_q2eb8Pyjk/s1600/Mission+budgets.+03+21.27-MOTION.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Within NASA’s planetary program, the budgets that fund current and
future missions show projected shifts in future years as development of the
Mars 2020 rover mission nears completion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Funding shifts to the low-cost (~$450M per mission) Discovery program,
the mid-cost (~$850M per mission) New Frontiers program, and the outer planets
program, which includes the Europa mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Final funding levels at this level
of detail haven’t been set for FY16, and I show estimates in this chart and the
next from Casey Dreier and Jason Davis with The Planetary Society.</span>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NASA’s planetary budget also includes two essential programs that funds
scientists to analyze the data returned by NASA’s planetary missions and to
develop technology for future missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The latter is proposed to take a one-time hit to reflect a cut in
spending to develop technology for future Europa missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Otherwise, both programs are projected to
have approximately flat funding for the remainder of this decade.</span></div>
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Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-59056585754145914762016-01-22T04:49:00.000-08:002016-01-25T04:13:41.450-08:00Europa Budget Bulge<!--[if !mso]>
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<i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Casey Dreier with The Planetary Society
made substantial contributions to this post. </span></i></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the children’s book, The Little
Prince, there is a delightful drawing of a boa constrictor that has a bulging
stomach because it swallowed an elephant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the coming year, I believe that the key development for NASA’s
mission to Europa will be an agreement on how the agency plans to accommodate the
monetary bulge that will come from funding this mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results of the negotiations between the
agency’s managers, the President’s budget managers, and Congress likely will
determine when this and other new missions will fly in the coming decade.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">(I had hoped to include the drawing from
the book, but it appears that the copyright is still in effect in the United
States and France.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You can see it at <a href="https://marcellinespresso.wordpress.com/2014/10/20/vivian-and-the-little-prince/">this
webpage</a> or a picture of a real constrictor after it swallowed a goat on <a href="http://www.news.com.au/national/hungry-snake-eats-35kg-goat/story-e6frfkp9-1225834197934">this
page</a>.)</span></div>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXTQ8Awra9BHXqIlIjiaOxMO-I3OBYY2rUY4NkZq1e50iI7Q50Iyky2l2H8rL6NcT0LL3_kLPTGCjZslvTLaaFMrJl_pW2SYG4fHhqllFusw4pabaMBzXMPMh_2JDt9XUpG9rWaDWAkL0/s1600/Europa+mission+summary.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXTQ8Awra9BHXqIlIjiaOxMO-I3OBYY2rUY4NkZq1e50iI7Q50Iyky2l2H8rL6NcT0LL3_kLPTGCjZslvTLaaFMrJl_pW2SYG4fHhqllFusw4pabaMBzXMPMh_2JDt9XUpG9rWaDWAkL0/s400/Europa+mission+summary.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Summary of the
planned Europa multi-flyby mission from a 2013 presentation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This chart is the only one I know of that
provides a cost estimate from an independent review.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The official budget for the mission has yet
to be established and may differ from this estimate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since this slide, the actual instrument
payload has been selected and Congress has mandated that the mission also carry
a Europa lander.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">So why does the boa-elephant analogy
work for understanding the funding for the Europa mission?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Think of NASA’s planetary science budget as a
hose – or snake if you prefer – that’s of relatively similar width from year to
year (except for the attempted 20% cut 2013, but that’s another story). Generally,
the overall amount of money available to fund all future and existing planetary
missions is relatively consistent over the near future.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">But when you’re building a spacecraft,
your funding needs are not consistent year to year. Over the course of the
development, costs grow substantially, peak, and then tail off. In the first
years of developing a mission, spending is lower as much of the work is
designing and validating technology needed for the spacecraft.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Spending rapidly increases as parts are
built, greater numbers of engineers and technicians are assigned the project, and
pieces are assembled and tested. Most projects actually peak in funding needs a
year or two before they launch, creating the equivalent of an elephant’s bulge
in a boa constrictor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Spending typically
drops before launch, finally reaching a low and steady pace that represents the
costs of operating the mission in flight.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Because the overall amount of funding
available for new missions is generally flat, NASA’s project managers carefully
stagger the development of new missions in order to prevent different projects
from peaking at the same time. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPTX5Rt78iZRpNW9G9qJuXE0sxGxViTqSeisWDlWmWioosmdsv1Q7l0og_68ugO8aseINGAhtsunko6hyphenhypheneAtLHWcfjm3LnIA7xImCGAVuqDd-7c9qYlZsOPDV9oGXH-7_GHZKXsOcMqC0/s1600/Mission+budget+ramps.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPTX5Rt78iZRpNW9G9qJuXE0sxGxViTqSeisWDlWmWioosmdsv1Q7l0og_68ugO8aseINGAhtsunko6hyphenhypheneAtLHWcfjm3LnIA7xImCGAVuqDd-7c9qYlZsOPDV9oGXH-7_GHZKXsOcMqC0/s400/Mission+budget+ramps.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The actual and
planned spending for planetary missions in development this decade showing the
characteristic bulge in spending in the years leading up to launch (2016 for
the OSIRIS-Rex asteroid sample missions, was to have been 2016 for the InSight
Mars geophysical station, and 2020 for the Mars 2020 rover).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the development funding bulge for one
mission ramps down, the bulge for the next mission can ramp up without creating
the need for wide swings in the overall Planetary Science Division’s budget.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Figures are from actual budgets through FY16
and are the projected funding from the FY16 budget proposal.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For the last several years, Congress and
NASA have sparred over when the Europa mission should be staggered in respect
to other missions. Supporters in Congress want to see the mission launch by
2022, and are willing to increase the overall funding available to Planetary
Science to help incorporate the Europa bulge. NASA has only committed to
sometime in the to the mid-to-late 2020s, and has shown little desire to
increase overall funding to planetary science. To efficiently develop the
Europa mission, the two will have to reach an agreement on a funding plan and
launch date. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">If a Europa mission is to launch by 2022,
its funding peak will occur around the same time as the funding peak for the Mars
2020 rover, NASA’s other major planetary mission. NASA’s Mars 2020 rover and
Europa missions are both Flagship missions with an expected cost of around $2
billion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Congress, however, has stated
that the Europa mission must utilize the Space Launch System booster (cost
unknown) and include a lander that could add upwards of $700M to the mission’s total
cost.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The net result is that Congress
has mandated two large simultaneous bulges be funded at once for the 2020 rover
and Europa mission. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Absent an increase in the budget for the
Planetary Science Division in the late 2010s, these large missions could crowd
out other, smaller missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both
Congress and the White House have shown interest in ramping up the low-cost
Discovery program over the next few years in an attempt to restore the cadence
destroyed by cuts earlier in the decade. There is also the next New Frontiers
mission, a medium-class planetary spacecraft that would launch by 2024.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The funding bulges for these missions could
overlap those of the Mars 2020 and Europa missions, creating more competition
for funding.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">To achieve everyone’s goals would
require an increase of funding for NASA’s Planetary Science Division significantly
above what the White House has proposed in recent years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvG6To7ZBiziUhKlUtsxdhWJzC6zW2iZqPnT8tp_rOBWvAUtvVcYWb9vODBd7xKC1co7NmRufH5XjkY6w9xdZS-AZd-cCHW4Jk1NMIIwbPfN8mqa6XKpFuN8rg9sV47EK7lG-N594wegI/s1600/Callahan-Drier+Budget+scenario.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvG6To7ZBiziUhKlUtsxdhWJzC6zW2iZqPnT8tp_rOBWvAUtvVcYWb9vODBd7xKC1co7NmRufH5XjkY6w9xdZS-AZd-cCHW4Jk1NMIIwbPfN8mqa6XKpFuN8rg9sV47EK7lG-N594wegI/s400/Callahan-Drier+Budget+scenario.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Jason Callahan
and Casey Dreier of The Planetary Soceity have estimated what future NASA
planetary budgets might look like if all the missions planned for development
in the next few years are budgeted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
result is a substantial increase over the current planetary budget for Fiscal
Year 2016 of $1.63B.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">First, some background. Unlike Congress,
which only appropriates money on an annual basis. Budgets proposed by the President’s
budget officers (in consultation with NASA’s managers) project out five years,
with the first year the actual request for the next year’s funding from
Congress and the subsequent years being notional, but indicative of the
agency’s planning. For NASA to issue the multi-year contracts needed to develop
a mission, there has to be a clear, long-term commitment from the agency that
is reflected in the official budget request. It is very rare for a spacecraft
to successfully come to fruition without appearing in the official President’s
budget.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We will soon see if there is agreement
for the Planetary Science budget to increase to accommodate this new mission.
The President’s FY2017 budget request will be released in early February, we
will see if it contains the larger proposed funding to include a Europa mission
launch in the early 2020s. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">But if the overall budget of planetary
science doesn’t increase, there are several alternatives that the
Administration could pursue:</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Delay the launch of the Europa mission to the
mid-2020’s to push out its spending bulge well after the Mars program needs</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Delay the smaller Discovery and New Frontiers
missions and use that funding for Europa, which would result in an unbalanced
planetary program with just two Flagship missions launching in the next decade.
And this wouldn’t provide all the funding needed for the two Flagship missions.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span>Take the additional funding from elsewhere in
NASA’s budget (which would result in either hurting the human spaceflight
program that has strong political backing, or hurting one of NASA’s other
science program such as the Earth Science program (the latter of which has been
proposed by various members of Congress, but which I oppose – we are rapidly
modifying our planet and need satellites to identify and monitor the changes))</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Any of these alternatives represent
solutions typical of those made in budget negotiations, which assume a flattish
overall budget with the individual line items being traded off.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I’m hoping that this year represents a
new possibility.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The public has
repeatedly shown its interest in planetary exploration through its avid
following of missions in the press and the internet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Congress has noticed that interest and been
willing to support increases in the NASA’s planetary program for several years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several key members of Congress also are
personally interested in planetary exploration specifically and space science
in general and have consistently added money for Europa over the past few
years. Congress has also consistently increased NASA’s budget since 2013, providing
a surprising (and welcome) 7% increase in 2016.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This seems to be the year to attempt to
create a political consensus for a new, higher spending rate for NASA’s
planetary program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The set of proposed
missions is compelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Congress is
willing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the next year, before the
next President changes the players with the resulting delay in dealing with new
policies, we have stable management teams in the President’s budget office and
at NASA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And public interest groups like
the Planetary Society have shown that they can demonstrate the public’s support
for increased funding and build the political case for the needed funding.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">These budget issues aren’t unique to the
Europa mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They occur with any large
mission as NASA’s budgets are planned.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In a zero-sum game, something has to give.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In recent years, though, Congress has shown
its willingness to increase the size of the budget to match the vision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps it will be possible to have a dream
line of up missions in development: Mars 2020, Europa, two or more Discovery
missions, and a New Frontiers mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It’s worth working for.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Appendix: Estimated Europa mission costs</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I have seen just one official cost
estimate for the Europa multi-flyby mission (previously called the Europa
Clipper) in a mission definition update.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That estimate was for $2.1B without the launch (and was made by the
Aerospace Corporation, which NASA uses to provide independent mission cost
estimates).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To estimate total spending
that must be done before a possible 2022 launch, we need to add in the possible
costs of the newly required Europa lander and the launch vehicle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We should also subtract the costs of post launch
operations (which seem to run $50M to $70M a year for Flagship missions) and
money already spent or appropriated through FY16.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Here’s what the budget swag looks like:</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>+$2.1B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Multi-flyby spacecraft</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>+$0.5B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>SLS launch vehicle*</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>+$0.7B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Europa lander*</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>-$0.3B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Post launch operations*</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>-$0.4B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Already spent/appropriated</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This back of the envelope calculation
results in approximately $2.6B remaining spending before launch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If launch is in 2022, then that leaves six
years after FY2016, for an average spending rate of $440M per year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>More likely, there will be a higher peak spending
rate for a couple of years with lower spending in the beginning and end of this
period (based on spending patterns of other missions).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A possible average, though, is as far as I
can push this thought experiment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">*SLS cost estimate from another Europa
mission presentation; lander costs from a press account and may not be firm;
operations costs assume a five year prime mission at a swag of $60M per year.</span></div>
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<![endif]-->Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-8624632981822336932016-01-07T18:05:00.000-08:002016-01-07T18:05:03.546-08:00New Frontiers Mission #4<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I plan to do several blog posts on the New Frontiers 4 selection, and the list of missions that can be proposed. For now, though, here's a brief summary of NASA's announcement plus the text of the announcement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /><br />Big News: A mission to Titan/Enceladus has been added to the list of missions that scientists can propose:<br /><br />Comet Surface Sample Return,<br />Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample Return,<br /><b>Ocean Worlds (Titan and Enceladus),</b><br />Saturn Probe,<br />Trojan Tour and Rendezvous, and<br />Venus In Situ Explorer<br /><br />Selection in spring 2019, launch in 2024 or 2025. Up to three MMRTGs available.<br /><br />Text of the announcement:</span><br />
<br />Community Announcement Regarding New Frontiers Program Announcement of<br />Opportunity<br /><br />Estimated Release of draft AO .....................………...July 2016 (target)<br />Estimated Release of final<br />AO.....................................January 2017 (target)<br />Estimated Proposal due date........................................90<br />days after AO release<br /><br />This community announcement is an advance notice of NASA’s Science<br />Mission Directorate (SMD) plan to release a Draft Announcement of<br />Opportunity (AO) for New Frontiers Program mission investigations with<br />a target release date of July 2016.<br /><br />The New Frontiers Program conducts Principal Investigator (PI)-led<br />space science investigations in SMD’s planetary programs under a<br />not-to-exceed cost cap for the PI-Managed Mission Cost (PMMC). At the<br />conclusion of Phase A concept studies, it is planned that one New<br />Frontiers investigation will be selected to continue into subsequent<br />mission phases. There will be no Missions of Opportunity (MO)<br />solicited as part of this AO. All MOs are now solicited through the<br />Stand Alone Mission of Opportunity Notice (SALMON) AO. New Frontiers<br />Program investigations must address NASA’s planetary science<br />objectives as described in 2014 NASA Strategic Plan and the 2014 NASA<br />Science Plan. Both documents are now available<br />athttp://science.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy/.<br /><br />Investigations are limited to the following mission themes (listed<br />without priority):<br /><br />Comet Surface Sample Return,<br />Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample Return,<br />Ocean Worlds (Titan and Enceladus),<br />Saturn Probe,<br />Trojan Tour and Rendezvous, and<br />Venus In Situ Explorer.<br /><br />Five themes are described in the Planetary Science Decadal Survey.<br />The Ocean Worlds theme for this announcement is tentatively focused on<br />the search for signs of extant life and/or characterizing the<br />potential habitability of Titan or Enceladus. The draft AO will<br />fully elucidate information on the mission themes.<br /><br />The time frame for the solicitation is intended to be:<br /><br />Release of final AO...........................................January<br />2017 (target)<br />Preproposal conference...................................~3 weeks<br />after final AO release<br />Proposals due ...................................................~90<br />days after AO release<br />Selection for competitive Phase A studies....November 2017 (target)<br />Concept study reports due...............................October 2018 (target)<br />Down-selection .................................................May<br />2019 (target)<br />KDP B .................................................................August<br />2019 (target)<br />Launch readiness date ....................................2024<br /><br />PI-Managed Mission Cost (PMMC) for investigations are capped at a<br />Phase A-D cost of $850M (FY 2015$) with exclusions as noted in this<br />announcement. The now-standard 25% minimum reserve on Phases A-D will<br />be required within the PMMC. Operations costs (Phase E and F) are not<br />included in the PMMC, but will be evaluated for reasonableness. This<br />exclusion for operation costs will not apply to the development of<br />flight or ground software, ground hardware, or testbed development or<br />refurbishment that occurs after launch. These activities will be<br />considered deferred Phase C/D work and their costs will be included<br />under the PMMC. Only costs related to spacecraft operations will be<br />excluded from the PMMC. Lower-cost investigations and cost-efficient<br />operations are encouraged.<br /><br />Launch Vehicle costs and procurement will be the responsibility of<br />NASA. A standard launch performance capability will be defined and<br />provided as GFE and its cost will not be included in the PMMC. The<br />cost of mission specific and special launch services, such as for<br />higher performance launch vehicles or the use of nuclear materials,<br />are the responsibility of the PI and must be included within the PMMC.<br />Details of these costs are still under discussion.<br /><br />The value of foreign contributions remains constrained as was done for<br />the recent Discovery Program AO. The total value of foreign<br />contributions may not exceed one-third of the PMMC, and the value of<br />foreign contributions to the science payload may not exceed one-third<br />of the total payload cost.<br /><br />Investigations may propose the use Multi-Mission Radioisotope<br />Thermoelectric Generators (MMRTG) and Radioisotope Heater Units<br />(RHUs). Some of the costs for the use of these systems and materials<br />will be included in the PMMC as detailed below. These costs are not<br />final and may change.<br /><br />Up to three MMRTGs are available at the cost of $105M for one unit,<br />$135M for two units, and $165M for three units. The cost for the<br />unit(s) is included in the PMMC. In addition, the usage of MMRTG(s)<br />requires delaying the LRD by at least one year to no earlier than 2025<br />to allow for mission-specific funding to support provision of MMRTGs.<br />43 RHUs are available as GFE, and the cost of the units is not<br />included in the PMMC. However, the PMMC will include approximately<br />$26M of costs associated with the use of RHUs.<br /><br />In addition to the costs above, investigations using either MMRTGs or<br />RHUs will also incur approximately $28M or $21M, respectively, in<br />costs for special launch services against the PMMC.<br /><br />NASA will provide incentives for technology infusion into New<br />Frontiers investigations. NASA is considering providing technologies<br />as Government-Furnished Equipment (GFE), including up to 43 RHUs and<br />the NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT) ion propulsion system (two<br />flight model power processing units and two thrusters). NASA is also<br />considering providing an increase to the PMMC cap for investigations<br />utilizing the Heat Shield for Extreme Entry Environment Technology<br />(HEEET), a woven Thermal Protection System. In addition, NASA is<br />considering limiting the risk assessment of certain technologies to<br />only their accommodation on the spacecraft and the mission<br />environment.<br /><br />This incentivized technology list is not complete, and decisions on<br />the specific technologies and the nature of their associated<br />incentives will be made before the release of a draft AO. A<br />Technology Workshop will be held in early 2016 to provide technology<br />developers a chance to provide detailed information to proposers. All<br />NASA-incentivized technologies will participate in this workshop, but<br />other participants will be welcome as well.<br /><br />New Frontiers Program investigations involving entry, descent, and<br />landing (EDL) into the atmosphere of a Solar System object (including<br />the Earth) shall include an Engineering Science Activity, to be funded<br />outside of the cost cap, to obtain diagnostic and technical data about<br />vehicle performance and entry environments. Details of the goals and<br />objectives of this activity will be posted on the New Frontiers<br />Program Acquisition Website (<a class="bbc_link" href="http://newfrontiers.larc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank">http://newfrontiers.larc.nasa.gov/</a>) in<br />the Program Library.<br /><br />New Frontiers Program investigations may propose activities that have<br />the potential to broaden the scientific impact of investigations as<br />optional Science Enhancement Options (SEOs). SEOs include, but are<br />not limited to, guest investigator programs, general observer<br />programs, participating scientist programs, interdisciplinary<br />scientist programs, and archival data analysis programs. NASA is<br />considering allowing New Frontiers Program investigations to also<br />propose Technology Demonstration Opportunities (TDOs) to demonstrate<br />new capabilities. TDOs and SEOs are funded outside of the PMMC cap<br />and may possibly not be selected even if the parent mission is<br />selected for flight.<br /><br />NASA will release a draft of the New Frontiers AO in the summer of<br />2016. The draft AO will be based on the recent Discovery AO, as well<br />as the Standard PI-led Mission AO Template. NASA has begun its<br />regular assessment and revision of the Standard AO, and, once it is<br />complete, the Draft New Frontiers AO will be written and provided for<br />public comment. Proposers should read the Draft New Frontiers AO<br />carefully when it is released.<br /><br />NASA has not approved the issuance of the New Frontiers AO and this<br />notification does not obligate NASA to issue the AO and solicit<br />proposals. Any costs incurred by prospective investigators in<br />preparing submissions in response to this notification or the planned<br />Draft New Frontiers AO are incurred completely at the submitter's own<br />risk.<br /><br />Further information will be posted on the New Frontiers Program<br />Acquisition Page at <a class="bbc_link" href="http://newfrontiers.larc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank">http://newfrontiers.larc.nasa.gov/</a> as it becomes<br />available.<br /><br />Questions may be addressed to Dr. Curt Niebur, New Frontiers Program<br />Lead Scientist, Planetary Science Division, Science Mission<br />Directorate, NASA, Washington, DC 20546; Tel.: (202) 358-0390; E-mail:<br /><a class="bbc_email" href="mailto:curt.niebur@nasa.gov">curt.niebur@nasa.gov</a>.Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-8551546024704474552016-01-06T06:04:00.001-08:002016-01-06T06:04:32.857-08:00European Contribution to NASA's Europa Mission<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/01/05/esa-wants-to-be-a-part-of-nasas-mission-to-europa/">Spaceflight Now has an article </a>on the interest of European Space Agency managers of making a major contribution to NASA's Europa mission. What the article lacks is a statement of whether or not there is sufficient mass margin in the mission to carry both the newly mandated NASA Europa lander and a European contribution. It's possible that NASA doesn't yet know since it has been examining the lander concept, at the request of Congress, for only a few months. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If NASA concludes that there is mass for a European contribution, teams of scientists can propose concepts for the next ESA medium class mission selection. The competition will be tough with with other teams likely to propose a number of other compelling astrophysics and planetary mission concepts.</span>Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-270899075443508100.post-76944246370367833232015-12-29T21:38:00.000-08:002015-12-29T21:38:18.015-08:00A Lander for NASA’s Europa Mission<!--[if !mso]>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">“This Act includes $1,631,000,000 for
Planetary Science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of this amount,
$261,000,000 is for Outer Planets, of which $175,000,000 is for the Jupiter
Europa clipper mission and clarifies that this mission shall include an orbiter
with a lander that will include competitively selected instruments and that
funds shall be used to finalize the mission design concept with a target launch
date of 2022.”</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">“…$175,000,000 is for an orbiter with a
lander to meet the science goals for the Jupiter Europa mission as outlined in
the most recent planetary science decadal survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration shall use the Space Launch System as the launch vehicle for the
Jupiter Europa mission, plan for a launch no later than 2022, and include in
the fiscal year 2017 budget the 5-year funding profile necessary to achieve
these goals.”</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: right; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-synthesis: weight style; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Final budget law for Fiscal Year 2016 regarding
NASA’s Europa mission</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">While there’s at least eight years until it launches, this has been a
pivotal year for developing NASA’s Europa mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Last spring, NASA selected <a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2015/06/nasa-goes-first-class-for-europa.html">a
rich and highly capable instrument set</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This summer, following a design concept review, the mission moved from
concept studies to an official mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And just last week, Congress directed NASA to expand the mission by
adding a small lander as well as launch the mission by 2022 and use the Space
Launch System. These latter aren’t just suggestions: they are the law.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There’s been almost no official information on the lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What we know comes from a <a href="http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/11/attempt-no-landing-there-yeah-right-were-going-to-europa/">long
article from Ars Technica’s Eric Berger</a> on the then possible addition of a
lander and a dedicated plume flyby sub-satellite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berger is a long time space reporter and has
developed a good relationship with House Appropriations Subcommittee Chairman
John Culberson (R-TX).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(I make sure I
read all of Berger’s articles.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
Berger describes in detail in his article, Culberson has been the driving force
behind the aggressive funding for this mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In addition to an earlier launch, .Culberson also has wanted to see the
mission carry a lander in addition to the mother craft that would make at least
45 close flybys of the moon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In prior
years, Culberson added funding to NASA’s budget specifically to study a lander
option, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s engineers have been studying
options.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berger’s story is focused more
on Culberson, but it does provide a number of facts about the possible design
for the lander:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The leading concept for the lander
would be a small lander, perhaps about 230 kg with 20-30 kg for
instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For comparison, the 1996
Mars Pathfinder lander had a mass of 265 kg.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The lander would be delivered to
Jovian orbit by the main spacecraft and then released in a high parking orbit
well outside the intense radiation fields at Europa’s orbit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The main spacecraft would study Europa’s
surface for two to three years during its flybys to find the best combination
of a scientifically interesting and safe landing spot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The actual landing would use the
same skycrane approach used by the Curiosity Mars mission to deliver the lander
safely to the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The lander would likely last
perhaps 10 days on the surface using battery power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the lander’s lifetime, it would
investigate the chemistry of the surface using a mass spectrometer and possibly
a Raman spectrometer.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A lander could add $700M or more to
the mission cost.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last cost estimate
I heard for just the main spacecraft was $2.1B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>We don’t know how firm the lander cost estimate is.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Adding a lander would delay launch
from a possible 2022 to 2023.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This description is pretty bare bones, but with a little legwork, it is
possible to flesh out these ideas with some informed speculation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It helps that a number of previous studies
have been published that examined concepts for a Europa lander.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXAgYwJzHxyY2hXXNrjLpOIIKH_zcO3qKSrTnEFx29_lb07R_J2KCbEKZOfT7W1iGL-hJsHguz8WvQPRChP6rAhVxTuOHXjn_TCatJxYvNBJPMZjKkpRhxbwqNrbykLRe7XuJOKxmbfvU/s1600/JIMO+Europa+lander.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="337" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXAgYwJzHxyY2hXXNrjLpOIIKH_zcO3qKSrTnEFx29_lb07R_J2KCbEKZOfT7W1iGL-hJsHguz8WvQPRChP6rAhVxTuOHXjn_TCatJxYvNBJPMZjKkpRhxbwqNrbykLRe7XuJOKxmbfvU/s400/JIMO+Europa+lander.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the mid-2000s, NASA studied a <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2005/pdf/2197.pdf">small Europa
lander</a> that would have had similar mass and capabilities to those
reportedly be considered for the approved Europa mission. Credit: NASA/JPL.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The primary goal of any lander would be to sample material from the
interior ocean to see if the chemicals needed to support life are present and
whether complex organic molecules suggesting biotic or pre-biotic activity
exist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We lack the technology to drill
through the kilometers of ice to reach the ocean directly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, in many locations the icy shell
appears to be fractured and water from below has spilled onto the surface and
frozen and in certain locations may be actively venting into space.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The goal will be to set the lander down in
one of these zones.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Our current knowledge of Europa’s surface is too poor to select the
scientifically most interesting sites that are also safe to land in.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The main spacecraft will spend three years
circling Jupiter and flying low over Europa 45 times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of its prime goals will be to for its
cameras and spectrometers to find the optimal combination of evidence of ocean
material on the surface with a safe landing zone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any landing will need to wait for scientists
to build their high resolution maps.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">One aspect of this proposed lander concept is different than those I’ve
seen before.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most lander studies have
looked at small spacecraft (and this proposal would count as a small
spacecraft) that would be carried by the mother craft until just before landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the design Berger reported on, lander and
its descent stage would orbit Jupiter on their own for months to years before
landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This means that together they
are a fully functional independent spacecraft with its own solar arrays for
power, propulsion, navigation, and communications.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently the cost and mass of adding these
functions to the descent stage and lander is a better bargain than adding the
radiation hardening that would be required if the lander were carried past
Europa 45 times.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Once on the surface, the lander could be well protected from
radiation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rotation of Jupiter’s
magnetosphere causes the radiation to slam into Europa’s trailing
hemisphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The leading hemisphere has
Europa’s bulk as a very effective radiation shield, and radiation there is
fairly low.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Past proposals have focused
on putting a lander on the leading hemisphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As a result, the lander likely would run out of power before radiation
would fry its electronics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fortunately,
there are several regions on the leading hemisphere where the icy shell appears
to have been recently (in geologic terms, anyway) fractured.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Berger’s article states that the lander likely would be powered by
batteries, limiting its life to around 10 days.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Solar panels apparently are being considered, but I can see why they
might not be attractive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sunlight at
Jupiter is weak, and solar panels large enough to harvest a meaningful amount of
that light might be too bulky and heavy for the mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Berger’s article lists just two possible instruments for the lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on his language, the core instrument
would be a mass spectrometer that would “weigh” the molecules and atoms in
samples scooped, cut, or drilled from the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Extremely complex molecules could suggest
life, especially if they are rich in elements, like carbon, which are the basis
for life on the Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A second
instrument under consideration would be a Raman spectrometer that would
illuminate samples with lasers and use the resulting “glow” to measure
composition including complex organic molecules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(For those who understand Raman spectroscopy,
please forgive this simplification of a complex subject; here’s a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy">link to a Wikipedia article</a>
for more on this technology.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’ve also
heard through other sources that the lander would carry an imager to examine
the terrain around the landing site.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Once on the surface, the lander would use a sample acquisition system
to collect a sample of ice from the surface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As Berger points out, at Europa’s surface temperatures, the ice is as
hard as rock, so the cutting or drilling mechanism will need to be robust.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the sample is collected, it would be
delivered to the instruments to measure its composition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the lander touches down near an active
vent, the mass spectrometer could also measure the composition of the particles
and gases in the plume.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Previous studies typically have proposed at least two other instruments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Europa’s icy shell is constantly being
stressed by the tides induced by Jupiter which should produce high seismic activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A seismometer would give scientists a rich
data set on the interior structure of the ice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Europa also sits within Jupiter’s intense magnetosphere which causes an
induced magnetic field in the moon’s interior ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How this induced field varies as Europa
orbits Jupiter would provide valuable clues to the size and salinity of the
ocean.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A magnetometer on the lander
could provide continuous measurements for the life of the lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berger’s article was silent on whether or not
these instruments are under consideration for this version of the lander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(On a side note, a magnetometer plus a simple plasma probe would allow
the lander to conduct useful science while it orbits Jupiter waiting for
landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scientists would like to study
Jupiter’s magnetosphere from multiple locations at once.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The lander while in orbit around Jupiter could
complement similar measurements from the main spacecraft, and depending on the
timing, also from Europe’s JUICE spacecraft that will enter Jovian orbit in the
late 2020s.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Berger’s article is silent on how data would be returned to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two possibilities are obvious – low data rate
transmissions directly from the lander to Earth or high data rate transmissions
from the lander to the orbiter for later relay to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Data relay from the mother flyby spacecraft
likely would be possible, but the rapidly changing relative locations of the
landing site and the orbiter circling Jupiter may limit how much data could be
returned and when communication relay is possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2015/10/a-european-spacecraft-to-accompany.html">A
recent European study for a Europa lander</a> assumed that the mother
spacecraft would have just one chance to directly receive data from the lander
in a 10 day period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One argument for
excluding a seismometer is that this instrument would produce large amounts of
data that may be difficult to return directly to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The European study found that the brief relay
between lander and orbiter would have enabled the return of seismic data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Magnetometers, on the other hand, produce
only small amounts of data that likely could be directly relayed to Earth
(assuming the lander would have that ability).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix_lgzcWMxCFndTkUc0QvvGT_aM5XNjtSky8Nk8p1UlK07YRz1g6ccQxzGqISiGo4kCyOMuj65gsBIfkALqzcW4RfQUoY_HGVaRkuAZ1KWuoFRPSyXkbm4CcyI3qe20aCUIEZifp0gRzk/s1600/rugged+terrain.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix_lgzcWMxCFndTkUc0QvvGT_aM5XNjtSky8Nk8p1UlK07YRz1g6ccQxzGqISiGo4kCyOMuj65gsBIfkALqzcW4RfQUoY_HGVaRkuAZ1KWuoFRPSyXkbm4CcyI3qe20aCUIEZifp0gRzk/s400/rugged+terrain.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the highest resolution images obtained
by the Galileo Jupiter orbiter, the regions of Europa that appear to be
fractured and have possible ocean material on the surface are extremely rugged;
these cliffs are approximately 10 stories tall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Credit: NASA/JPL.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A major challenge for any Europa lander will be that the scientifically
most interesting places to study also appear to have extremely rugged terrain
which makes landing risky.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berger’s
article briefly mentions that the lander would use an autonomous landing system
to examine the terrain below it to pick out safe spots to put down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Technologies to allow a lander to image its
landing site during descent have been studied for years and were implemented on
the Chinese Chang’e 3 lunar lander and are under consideration for NASA’s 2020
Mars rover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During final descent, these systems use images
taken by the lander in real time to analyze the terrain below to identify safe
landing zones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With an autonomous guided
descent, scientists can target an area that overall is rugged but has small
safe zones.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">What I conclude from the clues Berger supplies is that the Europa
landing would be much like the Philae comet lander (although with Europa’s
higher gravity, the lander will not bounce across the surface after touchdown
as Philae did).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The lander would have
just a few days to conduct its operations and return the data to Earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On Mars, we have become accustomed to landed
missions that last years with plenty of time to carefully consider where to
sample and then conduct follow up studies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>A Europa lander will be a mad dash to complete the science goals before
the batteries die. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">By the end of its life, the lander will have returned our first data
directly from the surface of an ocean world that may harbor life that arose
independently from the life on Earth.</span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMi4IivJeBm4iI2FSgGHNUIVyMnrezXHA1DoFyJxUYIWu-kTlfH4_sj6Ak6eAcE8QZ_ckiLtATneQZO1NaKUzfAi0bM7RT9gOov1mUiN2wc1_2qfDjvrGu-tCBJMBd8ZjJbpJETmZxbjk/s1600/SLS+vs+Atlas.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="308" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMi4IivJeBm4iI2FSgGHNUIVyMnrezXHA1DoFyJxUYIWu-kTlfH4_sj6Ak6eAcE8QZ_ckiLtATneQZO1NaKUzfAi0bM7RT9gOov1mUiN2wc1_2qfDjvrGu-tCBJMBd8ZjJbpJETmZxbjk/s400/SLS+vs+Atlas.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Launch on the Space Launch System (SLS)
booster currently being developed by NASA primarily to support human
exploration would significantly shorten the flight time to Jupiter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other presentations list the nominal cost for
an Atlas launch at ~$350M and for an SLS launch at ~$500M.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reducing the cost of operations during the flight
to Europa could make the SLS option, which is currently required by law, equal
to or cheaper than the Atlas option.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Credit:
NASA/JPL.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Editorial Thoughts</b>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I of course
want to see a lander delivered to the surface of Europa, but I have mixed
feelings about the inclusion of a lander on NASA’s first dedicated mission to
Europa for two reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, as I will
explore in more detail in my next post, adding a lander to the existing Europa
mission will push its costs up, perhaps to the $3.5B range when including a launch
on the SLS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Congress will need to
substantially increase the planetary budget to prevent the Europa mission from
crowding out the smaller planetary missions that provide balance to the
program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While Congress can pass budget
laws directing year to year spending, meeting these aggressive goals will
require that the President’s Office of Management and Budget (OMB) accepts the
new plan and allows NASA to sign the necessary multi-year contracts with its
vendors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the past, OMB has resisted
prioritizing the Planetary Science budget to accommodate a Europa mission.</span>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Second, the driving force behind the expanded mission depends on one
Congressman and his continued re-election, his political party’s continued
control of Congress, and his health.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
alternative approach would be to run the exploration as NASA has run the Mars
program by spreading costs out over a sequence of missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This would be in the vein of the proposed
“Ocean Worlds” program currently being shopped to NASA and Congress.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I expect that in the next few months that we will learn considerably
more about the lander’s design and NASA’s plans on how it will fit into its
overall planetary program.</span></div>
Van Kanehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14227978868817989527noreply@blogger.com16